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D.C.HEATH  &.  COMB 


JUNIOR    HIGH    SCHOOL    SERIES 

INTRODUCTION   TO 

AGRICULTURE 

PRACTICAL  STUDIES  IN 
CROP  PRODUCTION 

BY 

CLARENCE   M.   WEED 

AND 

WILLIAM   E.    RILEY 

STATE    NORMAL    SCHOOL,    LOWELL,     MASS. 


D.    C.   HEATH   &   CO.,   PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON        NEW  YORK        CHICAGO 


COPYRIGHT 

igi4    AND     1916  —  BY 

D.    C.    HEATH    &    CO. 


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PREFACE 

The  art  of  agriculture  is  based  upon  the  production  of 
crops.  Consequently,  it  seems  highly  desirable  that  the 
study  of  agriculture  should  be  begun  by  a  general  survey 
of  the  field  of  crop  production.  By  such  a  survey  the  stu- 
dent acquires  a  general  knowledge  of  the  many  kinds  of 
crops  grown  in  America.  He  is  thus  able  to  supplement 
by  a  broader  view  the  knowledge  gained  in  the  compara- 
tively narrow  field  of  personal  experience. 

In  this  book  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  carry  out  con- 
sistently a  method  of  teaching  which  has  led  to  successful 
results  through  many  years  of  use.  It  is  a  combination  of 
the  laboratory  and  the  project  methods  in  which  personal 
experience  with  real  objects  precedes  the  study  of  each  crop 
considered.  So  far  as  possible  these  laboratory  and  project 
outlines  are  made  so  simple  that  they  can  be  carried  on  in 
connection  with  any  school.  While  the  book  is  especially 
intended  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  Junior  High  School,  it 
should  also  prove  serviceable  in  other  schools. 

The  book  furnishes  the  teacher  with  an  abundant  series 
of  simple  directions  for  work  for  each  pupil  to  follow  out  before 
taking  up  the  study  of  the  text.  .  The  latter  gives  the  most 
essential  facts  concerning  the  characteristics,  history,  culture, 
varieties,  and  enemies  of  practically  all  our  crops.  There 
are  in  addition  many  charts  which  show  the  total  production 
of  the  various  crops  in  the  world  as  a  whole,  as  well  as  the 
production  in  the  United  States  and  in  special  states. 

In  nearly  all  cases  more  outlines  are  given  than  are  neces- 
sary for  an  adequate  study  of  the  text,  hence  the  teacher 

497941 


iv  PREFACE 

need  not  feel  that  it  is  essential  that  every  set  of  directions 
should  be  carefully  followed.  There  is,  however,  so  little 
dupHcation  that  all  of  the  directions  may  be  followed 
without  detriment  to  the  pupil.  The  work  should  be  espe- 
cially valuable  in  connection  with  those  schools  that  are 
carrying  out  project  methods  with  the  home  or  school  garden. 

The  book  is  divided  into  five  main  parts  treating  respec- 
tively Vegetable  Crops,  Flower  Crops,  Fruit  Crops,  Farm 
Crops,  and  the  Soil,  its  Origin  and  Improvement.  It  is  by 
no  means  necessary  that  this  order  should  be  followed.  The 
topics  can  readily  be  taken  up  in  any  other  sequence,  but 
our  experience  indicates  that  the  order  here  given  is  likely 
to  yield  the  most  successful  results  and  to  fit  in  best  with  the 
calendar  of  the  school  year.  An  exception  may  well  be 
made,  however,  in  connection  with  the  soil,  and  lessons  on 
this  subject  may  be  taken  up  at  various  times  in  connection 
with  some  of  the  crops. 

The  authors'  desire  is  to  place  especial  emphasis  upon  the 
importance  of  having  the  pupils  get  a  foundation  of  personal 
observation  in  connection  with  each  crop  before  they  study 
the  text.  By  so  doing,  they  come  to  the  latter  with  knowledge 
and  experience  which  enables  them  to  visualize  the  discussion 
instead  of  merely  learning  so  many  words  and  phrases.  In 
this  respect  the  book  differs  from  most  others  and  it  is  be- 
lieved that  for  this  reason  it  will  yield  more  successful  results 
in  real  knowledge  than  is  the  case  where  the  pupil  simply 
goes  through  a  few  observations  as  a  supplement  to  the  lessons 
studied. 


CONTENTS 

I.  VEGETABLE   CROPS  page 

Root  Crops:  Radishes,  Turnips,  and  Rutabagas 3 

Root  Crops:  Beets,  Carrots,  and  Parsnips      9 

Tuber  Crops:  The  Potato      15 

Bulb  Crops:  Onions,  Leeks,  and  Shallots 24 

Cole  Crops:  Cabbage,  Cauliflower,  and  Kale 29 

Pot-herb  Crops:   Spinach,  Chard,  and  Dandelion 38 

Salad  Crops:  Lettuce,  Celery,  and  Parsley 42 

Pulse  Crops:  Beans  and  Peas 50 

Vine  Crops:  Squashes,  Melons,  and  Cucumbers 59 

SoLANACEOUS  CROPS:  Tomato,  Pepper,  and  Eggplant 66 

II.  FLOWER   CROPS 

Annual  Flowers 73 

Annual  Flowers:  The  Composites      81 

Hardy  Perennial  Flowers 89 

Spring-flowering  Bulbs loi 

Summer-flowering  Bulbs 108 

III.     FRUIT  CROPS 

Pomaceous  Fruits:  The  Apple 115 

PoMACEOUs  Fruits:  The  Pear 126 

Stone  Fruits:  The  Peach 135 

Stone  Fruits:  The  Plums 143 

Stone  Fruits:  The  Cherries 155 

Small  Fruits:  The  Grape 161 

Small  Fruits:  Currants  and  Gooseberries 167 

Small  Fruits:  The  Raspberries 176 

Small  Fruits:  Blackberries  and  Dewberries 182 

Small  Fruits:  The  Strawberry 186 


vi  CONTENTS 

IV.   FARM   CROPS  page 

Farm  Crops:  Indian  Corn  or  Maize      195 

Grain  Crops:  Wheat 209 

Grain  Crops:  Oats 218 

Forage  Crops:  Grasses 224 

Forage  Crops:  Clovers 228 

Forage  Crops:  Alfalfa 233 

V.    SOILS:    THEIR  ORIGIN,   CHARACTERISTICS, 
AND   IMPROVEMENTS 

The  Making  of  the  Soil 241 

The  Water  in  the  Soil 245 

Soil  Fertility 249 

Soil  Tillage  and  Crop  Rotation • 253 

The  Kinds  of  Soils 257 

Appendix 261 

Suggestions  for  the  Teacher 263 


VEGETABLE    CROPS 


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ROOT  CROPS:  RADISHES,  TURNIPS,  AND  RUTABAGAS 


The  Radish 
Germination  Test 

Twenty-five  or  fifty  radish  seeds  for  each  pupil. 

If  practicable,  let  each  pupil  get  the  seeds  from  seed- 
pods  in  school  or  home  garden. 

Place  in  the  germinating  box  or  plate.  Examine 
daily.  Remove  those  that  sprout,  making  a  careful 
record  each  day. 

At  the  end  of  a  week  determine  the  percentage  of 
germination. 

Leave  some  seeds  in  a  germinating  dish  until  they 
develop  root-hairs,  as  in  the  picture  above. 

Growing  Radishes 

Fifty  radish  seeds  for  each  pupil.  Choose  early  round 
varieties. 

A.   Outdoors 

Plant  the  seeds  half  an  inch  apart  in  rich  mellow  soil. 
Cover  one-half  inch  deep. 

3 


4;  :        ;  .;      CROP    PRODUCTION 

Watch  for  the  seedUngs  to  come  up.  Dig  up  one 
when  the  first  true  leaves  appear.  Draw  on  paper  or 
blackboard. 

Dig  up  another  three  weeks  after  sowing.  Draw  the 
root. 

Pull  as  fast  as  the  roots  are  large  enough  to  eat. 

Compare  crispness  of  different  radishes. 

B.   Indoors 

Plant  in  a  window  box  next  the  window  all  the  seeds 
for  which  there  is  room. 
Watch  and  draw  as  in  A. 

Forms  of  Radishes 

Different  varieties  of  radish  roots  from  garden  or 
market,  or  pictures  of  the  various  types  as  shown  in 
the  seed  catalogues. 

Practice  drawing  on  blackboard  or  paper  the  outlines 
of  these  types  of  radish  roots: 

Round  or  turnip-shaped 

Olive-shaped 

Long 

Radish  Maggots 

Radishes  growing  outdoors.  Cut  open  radishes  of 
any  age,  even  those  that  have  gone  to  seed.  Find 
brownish  tunnels  where  white  maggots  have  eaten  the 
roots. 

Examine  several  young  radishes  to  see  if  you  can  find 
the  maggots  at  work. 

Read  the  life  story  of  the  radish  maggot  in  Farm 
Friends  and  Farm  Foes,  pages  126-128. 


RADISHES,  TURNIPS,   AND    RUTABAGAS       5 

The  Turnip  and  the  Rutabaga 
Types  of  Structure 

A  flat  turnip,  a  round  turnip,  and  a  rutabaga,  all  with 
leaves  if  possible.  If  any  types  are  missing,  replace 
with  pictures  from  seed  catalogues. 

Make  drawings  on  blackboard  or  paper  of  each  type 
of  structure. 

Notice  which  types  have  hairs  upon  the  leaves. 

Germination  Test 

Twenty  turnip  seeds  for  each  pupil. 

Place  in  germinating  box  or  plate.  Examine  daily. 
Record  and  remove  those  that  sprout. 

At  the  end  of  a  week  determine  the  percentage  of 
germination. 

Growing  Seedlings 

One  hundred  seeds.  A  window  box  filled  with  garden 
soil. 

Scatter  the  seeds  over  the  soil  of  the  window  box. 
Cover  lightly  with  fine  soil.  Water  through  cheese- 
cloth. 

When  the  seedlings  hav^e  three  leaves  dig  up  carefully. 
See: 

The  roots  and  root-hairs  with  soil  particles 

clinging  to  them. 
The  stem  above  the  roots. 
The  seed-leaves. 
The  true  or  foHage  leaves. 
Practice  drawing  the  seedlings  on  blackboard  and  on 
paper. 


ROOT   CROPS 


The  Radish 


Radishes  are  justly  esteemed  as  valuable  roots  for 
eating.  They  are  easy  to  grow  and  mature  in  so  short 
a  time  that  many  crops  may  be  taken  off  the  same  land 
in  a  single  season.  They  require  cool  weather  for  their 
best  development,  so  in  most  regions  they  are  grown  in 
spring  and  autumn  more  than  in  summer. 

There  are  three  principal  forms  of  Radish  roots, 
namely:  the  Round  or  Turnip-shaped;  the  Oval  or 
Olive-shaped;  the  Conical-cylindrical  or  Long  radishes. 
The  chief  colors  are  red  or  white  or  a  combination  of 
the  two. 

Radishes  thrive  in  rich  moist  loamy  soil  and  are  grown 
in  enormous  quantities  in  practically  all  market  gar- 
den regions.  Winter  crops  are  forced  in  greenhouses. 
Good  varieties  mature  in  a  month  or  less  under  favor- 
able conditions,  the  seed  being  generally  sown  in  drills 
ten  to  sixteen  inches  apart.  The  smallest  seeds  should 
be  discarded,  as  much  better  plants  are  produced  by 
large  seeds.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  spring  rad- 
ishes generally  grown  in  America,  there  are  varieties 
especially  adapted  for  summer  use  and  others  for 
growing  in  autumn  to  store  for  winter  use. 

It  is  not  known  whether  the  Radish  was  developed 
from  an  original  wild  plant  that  cannot  now  be  found 
or  from  the  comrhon  weed  called  wild  charlock.  As 
6 


RADISHES,  TURNIPS,   AND    RUTABAGAS       7 

an  experiment,  edible  radishes  have  been  developed 
from  this  charlock.  So  it  seems  probable  that  it  is  the 
plant  from  which  the  radish  came. 

The  most  troublesome  enemy  of  the  radish  is  the 
Radish  Maggot.  This  is  one  of  the  root  maggots  that 
ruins  the  roots  for  food.  Eggs  are  laid  by  a  two-winged 
fly  about  the  base  of  the  young  plant.  These  soon 
hatch  into  larvae  that  feed  upon  the  thickened  root, 
burrowing  through  it  in  all  directions.  After  a  few 
weeks  they  become  full  grown  as  larvae  and  change  to 
pupae,  to  change  again  soon  into  two-winged  flies.  A 
heavy  mulching  of  unleached  wood  ashes  or  refuse 
tobacco  powder  over  the  rows  just  after  sowing  is  said 
to  be  a  good  remedy  for  the  pest.  The  earliest  crop  of 
radishes  is  seldom  infested.  A  good  way  to  save  a 
later  crop  would  be  to  start  it  under  gauze-covered 
frames,  as  recommended  for  starting  cabbage  plants, 
taking  the  covers  off  when  the  crop  is  half  grown. 
Frequent  rotation  of  the  radish  bed  is  desirable. 

'   The  Turnip  and  the  Rutabaga 

The  origin  of  the  Turnip  is  not  known.  It  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  first  cultivated  in  Europe  or  Asia. 
It  belongs  to  the  great  mustard  family.  The  thickened 
roots  are  used  as  a  culinary  vegetable  as  well  as  for 
stock  feed.  Two  common  types  of  turnips  are  grown, 
the  Flat  and  the  Globular.     The  flesh  is  white  or  yellow. 

Like  the  radish,  the  Turnip  is  a  cool  season  crop, 
doing  best  in  early  spring  or  late  summer  and  autumn. 
It  requires  a  rich  moist  soil  and  is  grown  either  in  drills 
or  broadcast.  The  chief  enemy  is  the  root  maggot,  to 
prevent  which  crop  rotation  is  necessary. 


8  CROP    PRODUCTION 

The  Rutabaga,  or  Swedish  Turnip,  is  recognized  as 
a  species  distinct  from  the  ordinary  turnip.  While 
turnip  leaves  are  hairy,  those  of  the  rutabaga  are 
smooth  and  glaucous.  The  top  of  the  swollen  tuber  is 
lengthened  into  a  sort  of  neck  and  the  lower  surface 
sends  out  many  roots  in  addition  to  the  long  tap-root. 
The  flesh  is  yellow  and  generally  richer  than  that  of  the 
turnip. 

The  Rutabaga  requires  a  rich  soil  and  a  rather  long 
season.  The  seed  is  sown  in  June  for  autumn  har- 
vesting. In  addition  to  its  use  as  a  culinary  vegetable 
it  is  used  largely  for  feeding  cattle. 


ROOT  CROPS:  BEETS,  CARROTS,  AND  PARSNIPS 

The  Carrot 

Types  of  Structure 

A  long,  a  half-long,  and  a  short  or  round  carrot.  If 
any  types  are  missing  supply  with  pictures  from  seed 
catalogues. 

Practice  drawing  on  blackboard  and  on  paper  until 
pupils  can  draw  each  type  from  memory. 

Germination  Test 

Twenty  carrot  seeds  for  each  pupil. 

Place  in  germinating  box  or  plate.  Examine  daily. 
Record  germination  and  compute  percentage. 

Compare  time  of  germination  for  carrot  seeds  with 
time  of  germination  for  radish  seeds. 

Growing  in  the  Garden 

Sow  a  row  of  carrot  seed  in  early  spring  in  the  school 
garden. 

At  the  same  time  plant  several  carrots  that  have 
been  kept  over  winter.  Be  sure  the  crown  bud  at  the 
top  is  not  injured. 


lo  CROP  PRODUCTION 

Give  good  tillage  and  care.  Thin  the  seedlings  to  two 
inches  apart. 

See  that  the  seedlings  develop  roots  by  autumn  and 
that  the  roots  from  last  year's  growth  develop  flowers 
and  seeds. 

This  sort  of  a  plant  is  called  a  biennial,  because  it 
takes  two  years  to  produce  seed. 

Beets  and  Mangels 
Seed  Structure 

Twenty  beet  seeds  for  each  pupil. 

Place  in  germinating  box  or  plate.  When  germina- 
tion begins  examine  the  seed  under  a  hand  lens.  Find 
the  exact  number  of  plants  starting  from  one  seed. 

Examine  many  seeds  to  see  if  they  are  really  seeds  or 
a  sort  of  seed-pod,  each  holding  two  or  more  seeds. 

Growing  in  the  Garden 

Sow  seeds  and  plant  beet  roots  as  directed  above  for 
the  carrot,  to  show  that  the  beet  also  is  a  biennial. 

The  Parsnip 
Germination  Test 

Twenty  parsnip  seeds  for  each  pupil. 

Place  in  germinating  box  or  plate  with  carrot  seeds. 
Examine  daily.  Record  germination  and  compute 
percentage. 

Compare  time  of  germination  .of  parsnip  seeds  with 
the  time  of  germination  for  carrot  seeds. 


BEETS,   CARROTS,   AND   PARSNIPS  ii 

The  Wild  Parsnip 

Pull  up  a  wild  parsnip.     Compare  its  root  with  the 
root  of  the  cultivated  parsnip. 

Examine  the  seed.     Find  the  use  of  the  wing. 


ROOT   CROPS    {Continued) 

The  Beet 

The  various  forms  of  Beets  now  cultivated  have  been 
derived  from  the  Wild  Beet,  which  is  common  in  Southern 
Europe  and  other  regions  bordering  the  Mediterranean 
sea.  In  addition  to  the  Garden  Beet,  with  which  we 
are  now  especially  concerned,  there  are  the  large,  coarse- 
grained Mangel  Wurzels  or  Mangels,  grown  for  stock 
feed;  the  Sugar  Beets,  grown  for  their  sugar  content;  the 
FoUage  Beets,  grown  for  ornament ;  and  the  Swiss  Chard, 
grown  as  a  pot-herb. 

It  is  beHeved  that  all  of  these  have  been  derived  from 
the  original  Wild  Beet.  This  shows  what  can  be  done 
by  selecting  seed  with  reference  to  different  characters 
of  the  plant. 

The  varieties  of  Garden  Beets  are  divided  into  four 
classes  as  to  form,  namely:  Top-shaped  or  Turnip-rooted, 
Oval,  Half-long,  and  Long.  The  Turnip-shaped  sorts, 
however,  are  the  ones  now  grown  chiefly  for  use  as  a 
culinary  vegetable.  They  require  a  rich,  deep,  moist 
soil  in  good  tillage,  and  under  favorable  conditions  will 
become  large  enough  for  bunching  in  eight  weeks  from 
seeding.  They  are  usually  planted  very  early  in  spring 
for  summer  use,  and  again  in  summer  for  fall  and  winter 
use. 

The  so-called  seed  of  the  Beet  is  really  a  seed-head  or 
fruit,  in  each  of  which  there  are  usually  several  seeds. 


BEETS,   CARROTS,   AND   PARSNIPS  13 

Because  of  this  it  is  necessary  to  thin  the  seedlings  even 
if  the  seed  is  scattered  sparsely  in  the  drill.  The  seed- 
lings thinned  out  are  commonly  saved  for  beet-greens. 
Early  in  the  season  the  beets  are  sold  in  bunches; 
later  by  the  bushel.  Three  hundred  bushels  per  acre  is 
a  fair  yield. 

The  Carrot 

The  great  family  of  plants  which  have  small  flowers 
grouped  together  in  flat-topped  clusters  or  umbels  is 
called  UmbeUiferae.  It  includes  three  well-known  vege- 
tables, two  of  which  —  carrot  and  parsnip  —  are  culti- 
vated for  their  roots,  and  one  —  parsley  —  for  its  leaves 
and  leaf-stems.  All  are  hardy  species  and  from  the  point 
of  view  of  seed  production  are  biennials. 

The  cultivated  Carrot  is  believed  to  have  been  de- 
veloped at  least  two  thousand  years  ago,  from  the  Wild 
Carrot,  a  familar  weed  called  by  botanists  Daucus  carota. 
Its  original  home  was  probably  Europe  or  Asia.  The 
Carrot  is  now  an  indispensable  vegetable  for  use  in 
soups,  stews,  and  salads,  as  well  as  for  table  use  alone 
and  for  feeding  stock. 

The  original  long  Carrot  has  been  developed  through 
selection  into  three  distinct  forms  as  to  length  —  Short 
or  Globular,  Half-long,  and  Long.  The  two  latter  have 
also  two  types  of  pointedness,  one  set  of  varieties  being 
distinctly  pointed  at  the  lower  end  and  the  other  set 
blunt  or  rounded.  There  are  also  four  types  of  color 
in  the  roots  —  white,  yellow-red  or  orange-red  and  purple. 
The  yellow  and  the  orange-red  types  are  the  most 
popular. 

The  main  crop  of  Carrots  requires  a  long  season  for 


14  CROP  PRODUCTION 

growth.  With  most  sorts  the  seed  is  sown  early  in  spring 
and  the  roots  are  harvested  late  in  autumn,  but  quick- 
growing  forcing  varieties  that  become  large  enough  for 
use  in  early  summer  are  now  available.  The  Carrot 
thrives  in  a  rich,  deep,  moist  soil  in  the  best  condition 
that  tillage  can  give  it  and  as  free  as  possible  from  weeds. 
The  seeds  are  slow  in  germinating,  so  it  is  well  to  mark 
the  rows  by  adding  a  few  radish  seeds.  The  seeds  are 
commonly  planted  in  drills  twelve  to  sixteen  inches 
apart  for  hand  hoeing.  The  seedlings  must  be  weeded 
and  thinned  so  that  each  root  will  have  plenty  of  room. 
Two  hundred  bushels  to  the  acre  is  a  fair  yield. 

The  Parsnip 

Like  the  carrot  the  Parsnip  is  beHeved  to  have  been 
developed  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago  from  a 
wild  plant  —  the  Wild  Parsnip,  which  is  a  common  weed 
along  many  roadsides.  There  are  three  types  of  roots 
—  the  Short  or  Globular,  the  Half-long,  and  the  Long. 

The  Parsnip  requires  a  soil  even  deeper  than  that  for 
the  carrot,  as  the  slender  tap-root  of  the  long  variety 
has  been  traced  down  nearly  three  feet.  The  soil 
should  be  rich  and  moist  and  in  fine  tilth.  Seeds  are 
planted  early  in  spring  in  drills  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches 
apart  and  the  seedlings  thinned  to  four  or  five  inches 
apart.  The  seeds  germinate  slowly,  so  the  rows  should 
be  marked  by  radish  seedlings.  The  roots  mature  late 
in  autumn  and  may  be  dug  then  or  left  in  the  ground 
through  the  winter,  if  protected  by  a  light  mulch.  Five ' 
hundred  bushels  to  the  acre  is  a  good  yield. 


tuber  crops:   the  potato 

Types  of  Form 
Potatoes  showing  variety  of  form  —  long,  round,  and 
intermediate.     Make   outline   or   shaded   drawings   on 
blackboard  or  paper. 

Depth  of  Eyes 

Potatoes  of  various  forms,  some  with  deep,  some  with 
shallow  eyes. 

Weigh  a  potato  with  shallow  eyes.  Make  a  record 
of  its  weight.  Peel  this  potato.  Weigh  the  peelings. 
Determine  the  per  cent  of  peelings. 

Weigh  a  potato  with  deep  eyes.  Make  a  record  of 
its  weight.  Peel  this  potato.  Weigh  the  peelings. 
Determine  the  per  cent  of  peelings. 

In  which  potato  is  there  the  greater  waste  by  peeling? 

Seed  Balls 
Seed  balls  from  potato  tops,  brought  in  by  the  pupils. 
Examine  carefully  and  draw.     Open  and  examine. 
What  do  they  come  from?    How  do  they  differ  from 
potato  tubers  in  origin? 

Cut  the  balls  in  two.     Place  in  water  in  a  dish.     In  a 
week  or  so  they  will  begin  to  ferment.     Then  wash  out 
IS 


i6  CROP  PRODUCTION 

the  seeds  and  store  carefully  for  planting  the  next  spring. 
In  the  spring  plant  and  see  the  development  of  new  tubers 
when  the  \ines  are  dug. 

Insect  Enemies 

Find  as  many  stages  of  the  potato  beetles  as  you  can 
and  bring  to  school. 

Do  these  insects  bite  the  leaves  or  suck  the  sap? 

Where  and  in  what  stage  do  they  pass  the  winter? 

Read  pages  135-136,  Farm  Friends  and  Farm  Foes. 

Can  you  find  on  the  leaves  tiny  black  beetles  that 
jump  when  disturbed?     These  are  flea  beetles. 

Can  you  see  the  little  holes  in  the  leaves  that  these 
flea  beetles  make? 

How  do  farmers  destroy  potato  insects?  Spray  or 
dust  the  potato  plants  in  school  or  home  garden  with 
arsenate  of  lead  to  prevent  injury  by  these  insects. 

Are  potato  leaves  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture 
injured  by  flee  beetles? 

Fungous  Enemies 

Find  potato  leaves  injured  by  blight.  Compare  with 
healthy  leaves. 

If  there  are  sprayed  potato  plants  near  by  see  the 
difference  between  them  and  unsprayed  plants.  Spray 
your  own  plots  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Find  out  if  the  tubers  from  bUghted  plants  are  more 
liable  to  rot  than  those  from  healthy  plants. 

Find  some  scabby  potatoes.  Inquire  if  any  one  in  the 
neighborhood  soaked  the  seed  potatoes  in  formalin  solu- 
tion. What  was  the  result?  A  better  way  to  find  out 
is  to  soak  the  seed  potatoes  you  plant  in  formalin  solu- 


THE   POTATO 


17 


tion.     Dilute  one-half  pint  formalin  with  fifteen  gallons 
of  water.     Soak  two  hours. 

Scoring  a  Hill  of  Potatoes 

Let  each  pupil  bring  to  school  the  total  product  of  one 
hill  of  potatoes. 

Score  each  exhibit  according  to  some  approved  score 
card,  preferably  the  one  in  use  at  your  state  or  county 
fair.     If  such  is  not  available  use  the  following :     p^^  ^^^^ 

Name  of  variety 10 

Eight  or  less  tubers,  at  least  two  inches  in  small  diameter       20 

Uniformity  of  size,  not  too  iarge  or  too  small 15 

Freeness  from  dirt,  scab,  rot,  or  insect  injury 15 

Smoothness,  with  shallow  eyes 10 

Flesh  white  and  firm,  without  hollow  center 10 

Story  of  how  they  were  grown 10 

Drawing  of  the  tubers  on  the  blackboard  or  paper     ...       10 


Let  each  pupil  fill  out  a  fresh  score  card  for  each 
exhibit  at  least  three  times,  each  time  on  a  different  day. 


POTATOES 

AVERAGE   ANNUAL 
PRODUCTION 

oEc/iDE  0399  -/9oaJ 


THE   POTATO 

The  Potato  is  one  of  the  most  important  crops  grown 
by  man.  Taking  the  whole  world  into  consideration  it 
ranks  next  to  rice  in  extent  and  value,  the  world  product 
in  a  single  year  amounting  to  nearly  five  billion  bushels. 
In  America  it  is  by  far  the  most  important  vegetable 
crop,  and  is  grown  for  market  as  a  field  staple  in  many 
states.  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  and  Wis- 
consin lead  in  the  production  of  potatoes,  while  Maine, 
Montana,  and  Nevada  lead  in  the  average  number  of 
bushels  per  acre.  The  average  annual  crop  for  the  whole 
United  States  is  estimated  at  more  than  two  hundred 
and  fifty  milhon  bushels. 

The  cultivated  Potato  has  been  derived  from  a  wild 
plant  called  Salanum  tuberosum,  which  has  been  growing 
since  prehistoric  times  in  South  America  and  Mexico. 
The  natives  of  Peru  appear  to  have  brought  it  into  cul- 
tivation some  thousands  of  years  ago,  so  that  when  the 
Spaniards  invaded  that  country  in  the  sixteenth  century 
they  found  the  Potato  in  cultivation.  They  were  so 
impressed  with  its  value  that  tubers  were  sent  to  Europe 
in  1542  and  later. 

Potatoes  were  also  grown  by  the  early  colonists  of 
North  America,  though  whether  they  were  obtained  from 
Indians  or  Spaniards  seems  not  to  be  known.  A  notable 
date  in  the  history  of  the  Potato  is  the  year  1586,  when 
it  was  introduced  into  Ireland.  It  there  became  so 
18 


CROP   PRODUCTION 


important  a  crop  that  to  this  day  it  is  known  as  the 

Irish  Potato. 
While  the  sweet  potato  is  a  root- tuber,  the  Potato  is  a 

stem-tuber,  developing  from  an  underground  stem  or 

root-stock.    The  eyes  upon  the  tuber  are  really  buds  and 

are  arranged  in 
spirals  in  a  way 
that  may  be  read- 
ily seen  by  placing 
a  pin  or  tack  in 
the  eye  of  each 
potato  and  then 
twisting  a  piece  of 
string  along  the 
line.  The  tuber  is 
a  store  house  of 
Potatoes  as  they  Form  in  the  Hill       starchy  plant  food 

by  means  of  which  the  plant  is  a  perennial. 

It  now  rarely  reproduces  by  means  of  the  berry-like 

fruits  that  follow  the  blossoms  above  ground. 

The  Points  of  a  Good  Potato 

For  the  ordinary  purpose  of  home  or  market  a  potato 
should  be  of  good  size,  but  not  so  large  as  to  be  liable  to 
show  hollow  spaces  when  cut  open.  It  should  be  thick 
for  its  length  and  have  few  and  shallow  eyes,  that  there 
may  be  as  little  waste  as  possible  in  peeling.  When 
grown  under  favorable  conditions  it  should  cook  to  a  good 
mealy  quahty.  Stems  and  leaves  should  be  held  erect 
and  have  as  much  resistance  to  disease  as  possible.  In 
most  markets  a  white  skinned,  white-fleshed  potato  is 
preferred  to  one  showing  red  colors. 


THE   POTATO 


Potatoes  thrive  in  a  deep,  moist  soil  which  is  well- 
drained  and  loamy,  with  an  abundance  of  humus  or  de- 
caying vegetation.  The  details  of  culture  vary  consider- 
ably in  different  regions,  but  all  agree  in  having  the  roots 
so  well  covered  that  there  is  plenty  of  room  for  the  tubers 
to  mature  without  exposure  to  the  sun  and  air. 

In  regions  where  potato  production  is  a  specialty  the 
culture,  planting,  spraying,  digging,  and  sorting  is  done 
with  the  help  of  special  machines,  but  in  most  regions 
the  work  is  done  by  hand.  The  most  successful  growers 
cut  the  tubers  to  not  more  than  two  or  three  eyes  before 
planting,  the  cuttings  being  placed  about  a  foot  apart 
in  rows  about  three  feet  apart.  The  crop  requires  a 
complete  fertilizer  with  an  abundance  of  potash.  A  good 
average  yield  is  about  two  hundred  bushels  per  acre, 
but  much  greater  yields  are  obtained  by  scientific  culti- 
vation. 

In  the  southern  states  the  production  of  early  tubers 
for  northern  markets  is  one  of  the  most  important  phases 
of  the  great  truck  crop 
industry.  Northern 
grown  seed  of  early 
varieties  is  planted  as 
early  as  the  cHmate 
allows.  The  new  pota- 
toes are  packed  in 
slatted  barrels  with 
burlap  covers  and  sent 
by  rail  to  New  York 
or  Boston  and  other 
northern  cities.     From 


COLORADO  POTATO-BEETLE 
these   great   centers    they   are 


distributed  to  local  markets  everywhere. 


22 


CROP    PRODUCTION 


Insect  and  Fungous  Enemies 

Potato  leaves  are  almost  universally  attacked  by  the 
Ten-lined  Potato  Bug,  the  most  destructive  enemy  of 
the  crop.  The  adult  beetle  appears  as  soon  as  the 
plants  come  up,  feeding  upon  the  young  leaves  and 
depositing  clusters  of  yellow  eggs.  These  eggs  soon 
hatch  into  dark  brown  larvae  that  also  eat  the  leaves 
and  if  undisturbed  soon 
defoliate  the  plants.  The 
larvae  become  full-grown  in 
about  a  month.  Then  they 
enter  the  soil  and  change  to 
pupae,  to  change  again  a 
little  later  to  the  second 
brood  of  adult  beetles. 
These  lay  eggs  for  the 
second  brood  of  larvae, 
which  is  likely  to  be  much 
more  numerous  and  destruc- 
tive than  the  first.  Spray- 
ing or  dusting  the  leaves 
with  arsenate  of  lead  or  other  arsenical  is  the  general 
remedy  for  this  pest. 

The  Leaf  Blight  or  Early  Blight  of  Potatoes  is  one  of 
the  most  widespread  of  diseases.  It  is  due  to  the  attack 
of  a  parasitic  fungus  that  develops  only  in  the  leaves  and 
stems.  About  the  time  the  plants  blossom  the  disease 
begins  to  show  as  small  grayish  or  brownish  spots  scat- 
tered over  the  leaflets.  These  spots  are  dry  and  brittle. 
They  enlarge  from  day  to  day  as  the  threads  of  the  fungus 
invade  new  cells  in  the  green  tissues.     Finally  many  of 


Potato    Leaf    affected    with 
Late  Blight 


THE  POTATO 


23 


them  run  together  to  form  large  brown  blotches,  so  that 
the  plant  is  killed  and  the  growth  of  the  tubers  ceases. 
The  latter  do  not  rot,  however,  as  in  the  case  of  those 
affected  by  the  Late  Blight. 

In  the  regions  where  it  occurs  the  Downy  Mildew  or 
Late  Blight  is  the  most  destructive  fungous  disease  of 
Potatoes.  The  fungus  attacks  both  leaves  and  tubers, 
causing  a  serious  rotting  of  the  latter.  Fortunately  it 
can  be  prevented  to  a  large  extent  by  spraying  with 
Bordeaux  mixture,  a  treatment  that  also  helps  in  prevent- 
ing injury  by  flea  beetles  and  Early  Blight.  Arsenate 
of  lead  is  generally  added  to  the  fungicide  whenever  the 
potato  beetles  threaten  damage. 


BULB   CROPS:    ONIONS,  LEEKS,  AND   SHALLOTS 

The  Onion 

Types  of  Bulb  Crops 

A  collection  of  as  many  varieties  of  onions  as  teacher 
and  pupils  can  bring  together  —  large  onions,  small 
onions  for  pickling,  bunch  onions,  and  sets.  Also  chives 
and  leeks  if  available. 

Make  outHne  or  shaded  drawings  on  blackboard  or 
paper  of  round  and  flat  types.  Also  of  groups  of  sets 
or  small  onions. 

Origin  of  Seed 

The  tops  of  an  onion  gone  to  seed  in  school  garden  or 
some  home  garden. 

Let  each  pupil  pull  out  some  of  the  black  seeds  from 
the  withered  flowers. 

If  multiplier  onions  are  available  show  how  these 
originate. 

Seed  Germination 

Twenty  onion  seeds  for  each  pupil. 
Place  in  germinating  box  or  plate.     Examine  daily 
and  determine  the  per  cent  of  germination. 


ONIONS,   LEEKS,   AND  SHALLOTS 


25 


Growing  Seedlings 

One  hundred  or  more  seeds.  A  window  box  -filled  with 
garden  soil. 

Scatter  the  seeds  over  the  soil.  Cover  lightly.  Water 
through  cheesecloth. 

When  the  seedlings  come  up,  have  the  pupils  examine 
them  carefully  and  make  outline  drawings  on  blackboard 
or  paper. 


BULB    CROPS 

The  Onion 

The  Onion  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  Bulb 
Crops.  Immense  quantities  are  raised  commercially  for 
home  and  export  markets  and  considerable  quantities 
are  also  raised  by  individuals  for  home  use.  During 
recent  years  the  production  of  early  Onions  for  northern 
use  has  become  a  leading  phase  of  the  trucking  industry 
in  many  southern  states. 

Successful  Onion  growing  requires  more  care  in  culture 
than  in  the  case  of  most  crops.  Rich  level  land  free 
from  weed  seeds  and  in  the  very  best  condition  as  to 
fineness  and  freedom  from  stones  is  necessary  for  the 
crop.  Early  in  spring  the  small  black  seeds  are  planted 
thickly  in  shallow  drills  and  covered  with  about  one-half 
inch  of  soil.  The  slender  seedlings  soon  come  up.  When 
they  reach  a  height  of  three  inches  they  are  thinned  to 
an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inches  apart.  Then  later, 
when  the  young  bulbs  are  large  enough  to  eat,  they  are 
thinned  again  if  mattire  Cnions  are  wanted.  The  plants 
pulled  up  can  be  used  and  the  distance  between  those 
left  will  vary  from  three  to  six  inches,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  variety  and  the  conditions  of  culture. 

Frequent  and  shallow  tillage  is  needed  to  keep  the  soil 
surface  free  from  weeds  or  a  crust,  and  hand  weeding  of 
the  rows  must  be  given  whenever  weeds  appear  among 
26 


I 


BULB    CROPS  27 

the  seedlings.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  cover  the 
bulbs  with  soil.  Toward  the  end  of  summer  the  leaves 
should  begin  to  die  down  as  they  ripen  off.  This  process 
is  often  hastened  by  rolling  a  barrel  along  the  rows  to 
break  down  the  tops.  When  the  leaves  are  all  brown, 
the  bulbs  are  pulled  and  left  exposed  a  few  days  to  the 
drying  sun  to  ripen  off.  Five  hundred  bushels  to  the 
acre  is  a  good  yield  for  Onions. 

While  the  main  Onion  crop  is  grown  in  the  way  de- 
scribed, there  is  a  large  demand,  in  both  home  and  market, 
for  bunch  onions  in  spring  and  early  summer.  These 
are  partly  grown  bulbs  either  from  seeds  or  "sets." 
Sets  are  simply  dwarfed  Onions  grown  so  thickly  on  poor 
soil  that  they  crowd  one  another  and  ripen  off  as  httle 
bulbs,  less  than  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  are  then 
pulled  and  stored  until  next  spring.  Planted  early, 
they  soon  start  into  growth  and  in  a  few  weeks  yield 
young  Onions  for  pulling.  Instead  of  sets,  seedlings  are 
often  grown  under  glass  and  transplanted  when  the 
ground  is  fairly  warm. 

In  regions  where  Onions  are  grown  commercially  two 
fungous  diseases  are  often  troublesome  —  the  Mildew 
and  the  Smut.  The  Onion  Mildew  appears  as  a  grayish 
velvety  mold  upon  the  leaves,  many  of  which  soon  wilt 
at  the  tip  in  a  characteristic  way.  Millions  of  spores  are 
soon  developed  and  serve  to  spread  the  malady.  Damp 
weather  is  favorable  to  the  disease. 

Onion  Smut  is  entirely  different  in  appearance.  It 
shows  on  leaves  and  bulbs  as  blackish  streaks  made  up 
of  the  spores  of  the  fungus.  It  is  able  to  live  over  winter 
in  the  soil,  so  that  if  Onions  are  again  planted  the  disease 
is  Hkely  to  be  more  destructive.     Consequently  frequent 


28 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


Other  Bulb  Crops 

rotation  is  one  of  the  best  preventive  measures  for  this 
disease. 

The  other  Bulb  Crops  —  Leeks,  Chives,  Shallots,  and 
Garlic  —  are  of  comparatively  little  importance  in  a 
commercial  way.  Chives  are  very  useful  for  the  home 
garden,  the  leaves  furnishing  excellent  material  for 
seasoning  and  salads.  Leeks,  Shallots,  and  Garlic  are 
not  in  general  demand  in  America,  except  in  the  larger 
cities.  The  appearance  of  Garlic  as  placed  on  the 
market  is  shown  in  the  picture  below. 


I 


COLE  CROPS:  CABBAGE,  CAULIFLOWER,  AND  KALE 

The  Cabbage 

Types 

Mounted  pictures  from  seed  catalogues  of  flat  and  con- 
ical varieties,  as  well  as  those  with  crumpled  leaves. 

Let  pupils  tell  of  the  kinds  of  cabbages  they  have  grown 
or  seen. 

See&  Germination 

Ten  seeds  for  each  pupil. 

Place  in  germinating  dish  and  determine  the  percent- 
age that  germinate. 

Growing  Seedlings 

About  fifty  seeds.     Window  box  of  garden  soil. 

Sow  seeds  on  surface  of  soil  outdoors  or  in  sunny 
window.      Cover  lightly.     Water  through  cheesecloth. 

When  seedlings  come  up,  dig  up  and  study  structure. 
See  roots,  stem,  seed-leaves,  and  true  leaf. 

Compare  with  radish  seedling. 

Draw  for  booklet. 

Enemies 

Find  cabbage  worms  or  chrysalids  and  keep  in  glass- 
covered  box  to  rear  adult  butterflies. 
29 


30  CROP  PRODUCTION 

In  spring  and  early  summer  plants  that  die  are  likely 
to  show  that  roots  are  destroyed  by  root  maggots. 

The  Cauliflower 
Structure 

A  cauliflower  and  a  cabbage,  each  cut  through  the 
center  vertically. 

Compare  the  structure  of  the  cabbage  and  the  cauli- 
flower. 

Find  out  who  grow  cauliflower  in  your  neighborhood. 

Kale,  Kohlrabi,  and  Brussels  Sprouts 
Structure 

A  plant  of  each  or  mounted  pictures  from  seed 
catalogues. 

Describe  kale.     How  does  it  differ  from  cabbage? 

Describe  kohlrabi.     How  does  it  differ  from  kale? 

Describe  a  Brussels  sprouts  plant.  How  does  it  differ 
from  cabbage? 


COLE   CROPS 

Under  the  phrase  Cole  Crops  are  commonly  included 
several  plants  now  quite  different  from  one  another,  but 
which  have  all  been  developed  from  the  Wild  Cabbage, 
a  member  of  the  Mustard  Family ,  native  to  European  sea 
coasts.  It  is  a  rather  small  plant  and  is  very  different 
from  any  of  those  which  have  been  derived  from  it. 
These  include  Cabbage,  Cauliflower,  Kale,  Kohlrabi,  and 
Brussels  Sprouts. 

The  Cabbage 

The  Cabbage  is  much  the  most  important  of  these 
Cole  Crops.  It  has  been  grown  since  prehistoric  times 
and  has  become  a  staple  article  of  human  food  over  a 
large  part  of  the  globe.  The  head  is  really  a  shortened 
stem  or  giant  bud  in  which  in  vertical  cross-section  one  can 
easily  see  the  leaf-stems  and  leaf-blades,  and  even  the 
small  buds  in  the  axils  of  the  stems.  The  plant  is  a 
biennial,  forming  heads  of  leaves  the  first  year  and  send- 
ing up  flower  stalks  the  second.  There  are  several  dis- 
tinct types  of  Cabbages;  some  have  conical  heads,  others 
flattened  ones.  The  Savoy  Cabbages  have  crumpled 
leaves.  In  each  type  there  are  red  as  well  as  green  or 
white-leaved  sorts. 

To  mature  successfully.  Cabbages  require  a  deep, 
moist,  rich,  loamy  soil  in  which  they  can  grow  continu- 
ously until  the  heads  are  formed.  The  young  plants  are 
31 


32 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


commonly  started  in  hot-beds  or  greenhouses  for  the 
early  crop,  and  in  outdoor  seed-beds  for  the  late  crop. 
When  started  outdoors  or  when  properly  hardened  off 
from  indoor  culture,  they  are  quite  hardy  as  to  frost. 
The  small-headed  sorts  may  be  planted  two  feet  apart 
each  way,  but  the  large  ones  require  thirty  inches  or  more. 
After  the  plants  are  set,  good  tillage  must  be  given  to 
save  the  moisture  in  the  soil,  so  that  there  may  be  no 
checking  of  growth.  Unless  the  ground  is  very  rich,  the 
plants  will  be  benefited  by  one  or  two  light  applications 
of  nitrate  of  soda  or  other  fertilizer  rich  in  nitrogen. 
Young  Cabbages  may  be  planted  from  late  in  April  until 
early  in  July  for  successive  crops. 

It  is  especially  important  that  Cabbage  seed  be  selected 
from  the  best  plants  of  each  type.  Commercial  growers 
appreciate   the  importance  of   this   and   wilHngly  pay 

high  prices  for  strains 
of  seed  produced  by 
speciah&ts.  The  differ- 
ence between  profit  and 
loss  from  a  given  field 
may  easily  depend  upon 
the  percentage  of  plants 
that  make  sound  heads, 
and  this  depends  very 
largely  upon  the  quality 
of  the  seed. 

Insect  Enemies 
Two  insect  pests  are  often  destructive  to  cabbages  — 
the  Root  Maggot  and  the  Cabbage  Worm.     The  Root 
Maggots  hatch  from  eggs  laid  about  the  base  of  the  young 


CABBAGE,   CAULIFLOWER,   AND   KALE      33 

plants  by  a  small  two-winged  fly,  somewhat  resembling 
the  common  house  fly.  These  eggs  soon  hatch  into 
whitish  maggots  that  feed  upon  the  roots,  checking  the 
growth  of  the  seedling,  if  not  killing  it  outright.  In  a 
few  weeks  the  maggots  change  to  pupae,  to  change  later 
to  flies  like  those  that  laid  the  eggs.  One  of  the  best 
ways  to  prevent  such  injury  is  to  grow  the  seedlings  in  a 
frame  covered  with  cheesecloth.  The  cloth  is  removed 
a  week  before  the  plants  are  set  out  to  harden  off  by 
full  exposure  to  sunshine. 

The  Cabbage  Worm  is  one  of  the  best  known  garden 
insects.  The  adult  is  the  familiar  white  butterfly  com- 
mon from  spring  till  fall.  These  butterflies  lay  eggs 
upon  the  cabbage  leaves  The  eggs  hatch  into  greenish 
caterpillars  that  feed  upon  the  leaves,  remaining  hidden 
in  the  forming  head.  They  feed  and  grow  for  several 
weeks,  often  riddling  the  head  with  their  nibbling  when 
several  are  present.  Then,  being  full  grown  as  cater- 
pillars, they  crawl  out,  and  attaching  themselves  by  silken 
threads  to  the  sides  of  boards,  stones,  or  other  shelter, 
change  to  chrysalids,  to  change  again  a  Httle  later  to 
butterflies.  Thus  the  life-cycle  is  completed.  There  are 
commonly  several  broods  a  year.  On  young  plants 
which  have  not  begun  to  head,  the  larvae  may  be  killed 
by  kerosene  emulsion.  On  heading  plants  insect  powder 
may  be  used. 

Fungous  Diseases 

There  also  are  two  diseases  especially  injurious  to 
cabbages  —  Black  Rot  and  Club-root.  The  Black  Rot 
is  a  bacterial  disease,  the  germs  of  which  develop  by 
millions  in  the  sap  tubes  of  the  plant,  causing  death  and 


34 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


decay.  The  destruction  of  affected  plants,  rotation  of 
crops,  and  soaking  the  seed  in  a  dilute  solution  of  for- 
malin are  the  most  important  preventive  measures. 

Club-root  of  cabbage  is  due  to  a  low  form  of  fungus 
—  one  of  the  so-called  slime  molds  — that  lives  in  the 

soil  and  attacks  the 
roots,  causing  them 
to  become  abnor- 
mally swollen. 
Rotation  of  crops, 
setting  healthy 
plants,  and  heavy 
apphcations  of  Hme, 
both  to  the  land 
and  to  the  seed- 
bed, are  the  chief 
methods  of  prevent- 
ing the  disease. 

The  Cauliflower 
The  Cauliflower 
is  ranked  as  a  vari- 
ety of  the  Wild 
Cabbage,  so  its 
technical  name  is  Brassica  oleracea,  variety  hotrytis. 
The  edible  part  consists  of  the  curiously  modified  flower 
clusters  which  form  the  succulent  white  head. 

It  requires  constant  and  careful  selection  of  seed  to 
keep  the  type  perfect,  so  that  it  is  more  important  to  use 
the  choicest  seed  with  this  crop  than  with  almost  any 
other  vegetable.  Until  recently  practically  all  the  seed 
used  in  America  was  grown  by  specialists  in  Europe,  but 


The  Later  Stages  of  the  Cabbage  Worm 
Larva,  Chrysalis,  Butterfly 


CABBAGE,   CAULIFLOWER,   AND   KALE      35 

of  late  excellent  seed  has  been  produced  in  the  Puget 
Sound  region.  The  climate  there  is  especially  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  Cauliflowers.  The  best  strains  of  Cauh- 
flower  seed  cost  five  dollars  an  ounce  wholesale,  but  an 
ounce  will  yield  more  than  two  thousand  plants.  Other 
strains  are  listed  at  half  this  price,  but  in  this  case  the 
best  is  cheapest;  because  it  yields  a  greater  percentage 
of  salable  heads. 

The  CauHflower  is  essentially  a  cool-season  crop.  In 
certain  regions  where  the  summer  climate  is  cool  and 
moist,  the  crop  can  be  grown  successfully  all  through  the 
season.  Such  regions  are  found  near  the  sea  coast  or 
the  great  lakes  or  in  mountainous  localities.  In  other 
places  where  the  summer  is  hot  and  dry,  it  is  necessary 
to  plan  to  grow  the  crop  either  early  or  late.  For  the 
former  the  plants  are  started  under  glass  in  February  or 
March,  hardened  off  in  early  spring,  and  set  out  when 
the  ground  is  in  good  condition.  Such  crops  mature  in 
early  summer  and  are  harvested  before  the  heat  and 
drought  of  midsummer.  For  this  crop  early  varieties 
.  are  planted. 

The  late  crop  is  started  in  seed-beds  outdoors  and 
planted  in  June,  maturing  in  early  autumn.  A  chief 
danger  of  the  summer  heat  is  the  burning  of  the  delicate 
heads,  so  that  the  late  crop  escapes  this  because  the 
heads  are  not  formed  until  late  in  summer  or  early  in 
autumn.  It  is  desirable,  however,  to  tie  up  the  outer 
leaves  around  the  heads  by  means  of  raffia  or  bast,  thus 
insuring  better  blanching  and  cleaner  heads. 


36  CROP   PRODUCTION 

Culture  and  Enemies 

It  is  even  more  important  with  Cauliflower  than  with 
cabbage  that  the  plants  grow  steadily  and  thriftily  from 
beginning  to  end.  To  insure  this,  particular  pains  must 
be  taken  in  the  selection,  preparation,  and  tillage  of  the 
soil.  In  selecting  the  location,  choose  if  possible  a  deep, 
moist,  well-drained  loam,  rich  in  humus  and  easily  worked. 
In  preparing  the  land,  work  in  a  large  amount  of  fer- 
tilizing material,  with  plenty  of  vegetation  to  furnish 
humus,  and  get  the  soil  into  the  best  possible  tilth.  In 
tillage,  after  planting  keep  the  soil  surface  in  so  finely 
pulverized  a  condition  that  no  weeds  can  grow  and  little 
moisture  can  evaporate.  In  regions  where  irrigation  can 
be  practiced  throughout  the  growing  season,  success  with 
Cauliflower  is  comparatively  easy. 

The  Cauliflower  is  subject  to  attack  from  the  same 
insect  enemies  and  fungous  diseases  as  the  cabbage,  and 
their  injuries  are  Hkely  to  be  even  more  disastrous.  It  is 
especially  important  to  keep  the  CauHflower  heads  free 
from  worms  during  the  later  growth  of  the  crop.  The 
same  remedial  measures  may  be  used  as  for  cabbage. 

Kale,  Kohlrabi,  and  Brussels  Sprouts 

Of  all  the  forms  derived  from  the  Wild  Cabbage,  the 
Kale  or  Borecole  is  most  like  the  original  plant.  It 
forms  no  head,  being  grown  for  its  clusters  of  leaves, 
which  are  more  or  less  thickened,  especially  in  midrib 
and  stalk,  and  in  modern  varieties  are  of  various  colors 
and  much  cut,  curled,  and  crumpled  along  the  margins. 
There  are  dwarf  and  tall,  plain  and  variegated,  green 


CABBAGE,   CAULIFLOWER,   AND   KALE      37 

and  purple  types.  Kale  is  probably  the  hardiest  plant 
of  the  cabbage  group,  enduring  exposure  through  south- 
ern winters  and  even  at  the  north  surviving  with  slight 
protection.  Large  quantities  are  grown  in  Virginia, 
harvested  in  early  winter,  and  shipped  to  northern 
markets. 

In  the  Kohlrabi  the  edible  part  is  the  curiously  swollen 
stem  just  above  the  ground.  This  is  sometimes  called 
the  Turnip-rooted  Cabbage,  but  this  is  not  a  correct 
name,  because  the  swollen  part  is  not  the  root  at  all. 
Commercially  this  is  one  of  the  least  important  plants 
of  the  cabbage  group.  The  culture  is  much  the  same 
as  for  cabbage,  it  being  important  to  harvest  the  crop 
before  the  swollen  stems  become*  tough  and  woody. 

In  studying  the  cabbage  we  learned  that  there  are  buds 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  In  the  Brussels  Sprouts  we 
have  a  form  in  which  these  buds  are  developed  into  tiny 
cabbage  heads  which  are  very  good  to  eat.  Seed  is 
planted  and  seedlings  transplanted  much  as  with  the 
cabbage.  The  central  stem  elongates  and  sends  out 
coarse  leaves  along  its  sides.  In  summer  the  buds  de- 
velop in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  the  leaves  are  then 
to  be  removed  in  order  that  the  strength  of  the  plant 
may  be  sent  into  the  buds.  These  increase  rapidly  in 
size,  looking  Hke  miniature  cabbages  strung  upon  the 
stem.  A  lot  of  these  as  they  are  marketed  are  pictured 
on  page  29. 

Cabbage  Brassica  oleracea,  variety  capitata. 
Wild  Cabbage  Cauliflower  "  "  "         botrytis. 

■  Kale  "  "  "       acephala. 

Brassica  oleracea  Kohlrabi  caulo-rapa. 

I  Brussels  Sprouts  "  "  "    gemmifera. 


POT-HERB   CROPS:  SPINACH,   CHARD,  AND    DANDELION 

Spinach 
Seed  Testing 

Twenty  seeds  for  each  pupil. 

Determine  the  percentage  of  germination.  If  old 
seeds  are  available  test  those  also  and  compare  germi- 
nation with  that  of  fresh  seeds. 

Leaf  Miners 

Find  spinach  leaves  with  discolored  blotches.  Hold 
them  to  the  hght  to  see  the  maggots  inside. 

Swiss  Chard 
Seed  Testing 

Ten  seeds  for  each  pupil. 

Place  in  germinating  dish.  When  seeds  sprout,  see  if 
there  is  more  than  one  seedHng  for  each  seed. 

Compare  with  the  results  found  in  germinating  the 
seeds  of  beet. 

38 


POT-HERB    CROPS 

The  Pot-herb  Crops  include  the  various  plants  grown 
for  '' greens."  Spinach,  Chard,  Dandelion,  and  Mustard 
are  the  most  important  of  these.  They  all  require  for 
their  best  development  a  moist,  rich  soil  that  promotes 
quick  growth  of  leaves  and  stalks,  the  parts  used.  To 
insure  such  growth,  light  applications  of  nitrate  of  soda 
or  sulphate  of  ammonia  are  often  made  to  the  growing 
crops. 

Spinach 

Spinach,  pronounced  and  often  spelled  Spinage,  is 
commercially  the  most  important  Pot-herb.  It  is  suffi- 
ciently tender  to  make  good  greens  and  sufficiently  tough 
to  bear  shipping  long  distances.  Consequently  it  is 
raised  in  nearly  all  trucking  regions  and  sent  to  near  or 
distant  markets.  It  is  a  cool-season  crop,  thriving  in 
early  spring  and  late  autumn  and  hardy  enough  to  live 
through  mild  winters.  In  the  north  it  may  be  wintered 
over  in  cold  frames,  but  in  Virginia  and  other  southern 
regions  it  requires  no  protection.  In  the  latitude  of  New 
York  a  covering  of  litter  or  straw  is  often  given. 

The  culture  of  Spinach  is  simple.  For  home  use  at 
the  north  the  seed  should  be  sown  in  spring  as  soon  as 
the  ground  can  be  worked  to  advantage,  being  scattered 
sparingly  in  drills  and  covered  with  half  an  inch  of  soil. 
When  the  seedlings  have  five  or  six  leaves  they  should 
be  thinned  to  four  inches  apart,  the  plants  pulled  up 


40  CROP  PRODUCTION 

being  used  for  greens.  The  main  crop  should  be  ready 
for  use  late  in  May  or  early  in  June,  the  ground  being 
cleared  in  time  for  a  crop  of  beans  or  other  vegetables. 
In  more  southern  regions  the  main  sowing  may  be 
made  early  in  September  so  that  the  plants  are  well 
grown  by  winter  and  will  mature  in  early  spring. 

Spinach  has  been  cultivated  for  many  hundred  years. 
It  is  thought  to  have  originated  from  a  wild  plant  native 
to  Asia,  called  Spinacia  oleracea.  It  belongs  to  the  Pig- 
weed Family.  This  is  probably  the  reason  why  it  is 
commonly  attacked  by  a  leaf -mining  fly  that  develops  in 
our  native  white  pigweeds.  This  leaf  miner  is  the  most 
injurious  insect  enemy  of  Spinach.  The  infested  leaves 
show  discolored  blotches  through  which  the  outHnes  of 
the  footless  maggots  are  readily  seen.  In  northern 
regions  spinach  leaves  that  mature  before  the  end  of 
May  are  generally  not  infested. 

Swiss  Chard 

For  summer  and  fall  use  at  home  Chard  or  Swiss 
Chard  is  the  most  desirable  Pot-herb.  It  is  really  a 
beet,  developed  for  leaves  rather  than  roots.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Leaf-beet.  Seed  sown  very  early  in 
spring  in  rich,  moist  soil  will  yield  leaves  large  enough  to 
use  by  early  summer  and  a  continuous  succession  there- 
after until  winter.  The  comparatively  new  variety 
called  Giant  LucuUus  is  a  great  improvement  over  the 
older  sorts.  The  leaves  of  Chard  are  too  tender  to 
stand  shipment,  so  they  are  seldom  seen  in  the 
markets. 


POT-HERB   CROPS 


41 


Dandelion 

In  a  few  trucking  regions  the  Dandelion  is  an  impor- 
tant commercial  crop.  Seed  is  sown  in  early  spring  in 
rich,  Ught  soil,  the  ground  being  kept  well  tilled  until 
it  is  covered  by  the  spreading  leaves.  The  plants  are 
large  enough  by  fall  to  yield  a  cutting  of  leaves  and  may 
then  be  left  until  spring,  with  perhaps  a  hght  mulch  in 
winter.  In  spring  they  are  to  be  harvested  and  the 
roots  should  be  plowed  out  or  they  will  form  new  crowns 
that  will  blossom  and  scatter  seed  over  the  surrounding 
country.  The  varieties  developed  in  France  and  offered 
by  seedsmen  are  much  better  for  crop  purposes  than  our 
wild  DandeUon. 

Several  other  Pot-herbs  are  occasionally  grown  as 
crops.  Various  Mustards,  the  French  Purslane,  or 
''pusley,"  and  Orach,  another  member  of  the  Pigweed 
Family,  are  the  most  important  of  these. 


The  Kinds  of  Pot-herbs 


Spinach 

Chard 

Dandelion 

Mustards 

Purslane 

Orach 


SALAD  CROPS:  LETTUCE,  CELERY,  AND  PARSLEY 

Lettuce 
Types  of  Form 

A  cabbage  lettuce,  a  Grand  Rapids  lettuce,  and  a  Cos 
lettuce  or  mounted  pictures  from  seed  catalogues. 
See  how  each  type  differs  from  the  other  types. 

Harvesting  Seeds 

Lettuce  plants  gone  to  seed  in  school  or  home  garden. 
Let  each  pupil  separate  twenty  seeds  from  seed-heads 
to  use  in  germinating  test. 

Seed  Germination 

Twenty  seeds  for  each  pupil. 
Determine  the  percentage  of  germination. 
Plant  part  of  the  seeds  in  a  window  box  and  use  the 
seedUngs  in  drawing  exercises  on  blackboard  or  paper. 

Celery 
Varieties 

Study  two  or  three  seed  catalogues  and  make  a  list  of 
varieties  to  plant  for  fall  and  winter  use. 
42 


LETTUCE,    CELERY,    AND    PARSLEY  43 

Seed  Germination 

Ten  seeds  for  each  pupil. 

Determine  the  percentage  of  germination. 

Parsley 
Seed  Germination 

Twenty  or  more  parsley  seeds  and  five  radish  seeds 
for  each  pupil. 

Place  both  kinds  of  seeds  in  the  germinating  dish. 

Record  germination.  Determine  which  kind  germi- 
nates first  and  the  difference  in  time  between  the  germi- 
nation of  the  radish  and  the  parsley. 

What  advantage  would  there  be  in  planting  the  two 
kinds  of  seeds  in  the  same  row  in  the  garden? 

Growing  Seedlings 

Sow  parsley  seeds  broadcast  in  a  window  box  in  north 
or  west  window.  Seedlings  grow  slowly  and  do  better 
out  of  direct  sunshine. 

Transplant  occasionally  to  get  a  good  root  system. 

In  spring  plant  in  outdoor  garden. 

Endive  and  Chicory 

Sow  seeds  of  endive  and  chicory  in  the  school  garden 
or  in  the  home  gardens. 

Plant  in  early  spring,  as  soon  as  ground  is  in  good 
condition,  in  rich  soil  and  thin  to  eight  or  ten  inches 
apart. 


44 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


When  well  grown  tie  the  outer  leaves  together  with 
raffia  to  blanch  the  inner  ones. 

Some  blanched  hearts  of  Chicory  as  shipped  from 
Belgium  to  America  are  pictured  on  page  42.  It  should 
be  easy  to  grow  similar  ones  here. 


SALAD    CROPS 

The  three  most  important  Salad  Crops  are  Lettuce, 
Celery,  and  Parsley.  In  addition  to  these.  Endive, 
Chicory,  Cress,  and  Water  Cress  are  commonly  grown 
in  many  regions,  although  they  are  not  so  generally 
used  as  the  three  first  named.  * 

Lettuce 

Lettuce  finds  a  place  in  practically  all  home  gardens 
and  is  grown  in  vast  quantities  both  indoors  and  out  for 
market.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  truck  crops  in 
market  garden  regions.  Lettuce  has  been  grown  as  a 
garden  plant  for  thousands  of  years.  The  original  form 
from  which  it  developed  is  unknown,  though  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  come  from  the  Wild  or  Prickly  Lettuce, 
now  an  introduced  weed  in  America,  belonging  to  the 
great  family  of  Composite  plants. 

The  form  most  commonly  grown  is  the  Head  or  Cab- 
bage Lettuce,  of  which  many  varieties  are  offered  in  every 
seed  catalogue.  This  is  in  general  the  most  satisfactory 
type  either  for  home  use  or  market.  Seeds  sown  in 
drills  in  early  spring  soon  develop  seedlings  that  may  be 
thinned  to  six  to  ten  inches  apart  in  order  that  each  may 
have  room  to  head.  The  soil  should  be  loamy  and  rich. 
A  light  appHcation  of  nitrate  of  soda  when  the  plants 
are  half  grown  is  very  helpful.  Two  or  three  plantings 
should  be  made  at  intervals  throughout  the  summer. 
45 


46  CROP   PRODUCTION 

Two  other  types  of  Lettuce  are  of  value.  The  plants 
of  the  Curly  or  Grand  Rapids  Lettuce  do  not  form  com- 
pact heads,  but  have  large  leaves  of  value  for  salads  and 
garnishing.  The  Cos  or  Romaine  Lettuce  produces  long 
slender  heads  which  are  especially  valuable  for  summer 
use,  as  this  type  stands  hot  weather  much  better  than 
the  others.  It  was  formerly  necessary  to  tie  the  leaves 
together  near  the  top  to  blanch  them,  but  self-closing 
sorts  are  now  available. 


Celery 

Celery  is  a  garden  form  of  Wild  Celery,  a  plant  of  the 
large  Parsley  Family,  called  by  botanists  Apium  graveo- 
lens.  The  wild  form  is  native  to  great  regions  in  Europe 
and  Asia.  The  cultivated  form  has  been  in  use  for 
hundreds  of  years,  though  it  is  only  during  the  last  half 
century  that  it  has  become  the  universal  favorite  it  now 
is.  Before  that  it  was  a  winter  vegetable,  grown  in 
summer  and  carried  into  cellars  in  autumn  to  blanch 
before  being  used.  About  1885  two  important  self- 
blanching  sorts,  White  Plume  and  Golden  Self-blanching, 
were  introduced;   these  were  earher  and  easier  to  grow, 


SALAD   CROPS  47 

so  they  were  helpful  in  extending  the  season  and  making 
the  plant  more  popular.  Many  other  sorts  are  now 
known. 

Celery  requires  good  care  and  a  deep,  moist,  soil  rich 
in  decaying  vegetable  matter.  The  seeds  are  sown 
early  in  hot-beds  or  cold  frames  and  the  seedlings  thinned 
to  an  inch  apart  and  later  transplanted,  at  least  once 
before  the  final  transplanting  to  the  garden  or  field. 
At  the  first  transplanting  the  tap-root  should  "be  pinched 
off  to  induce  a  strong  development  of  other  roots.  In 
the  garden  the  transplants  are  set  six  inches  or  more 
apart  in  the  row,  according  to  the  variety. 

Good  tillage  is  given  until  the  plants  reach  full  size 
or  nearly  so.  Then  stalks  are  to  be  blanched  by  some 
method  that  will  exclude  the  light.  This  used  to  be 
accomplished  by  setting  the  plants  in  trenches  and 
filling  the  trenches  with  soil.  This  is  still  a  good  method 
for  home  gardens  where  the  soil  is  deep  enough.  A 
common  way  is  to  set  the  plants  in  rows  four  feet  apart 
and  gradually  hill  up  the  sides  with  earth.  Instead  of 
this,  boards  are  often  used,  set  vertically  along  each 
side  of  the  rows,  or  the  plants  are  set  in  solid  beds  and 
boards  placed  along  the  outer  borders. 

Celery  is  commonly  attacked  by  Leaf-spot  or  Early 
BHght.  This  is  a  destructive  fungous  disease  that  some- 
times causes  the  loss  of  more  than  half  the  crop.  It 
first  shows  as  small,  irregular,  yellowish  green  spots 
upon  the  leaves.  These  enlarge  and  become  brown  and 
soon  spread  over  most  of  the  leaf.  Spraying  every  two 
weeks  with  Bordeaux  mixture  is  a  preventive. 


48  CROP  PRODUCTION 


Parsley 


Parsley  is  a  member  of  the  great  umbel-bearing  family, 
often  called  the  Parsley  Family.  It  is  used  for  flavoring 
soups,  stews,  and  salads,  and  especially  as  a  garnish  in 
serving  meats  and  other  foods.  It  is  a  biennial,  though 
for  garden  purposes  it  is  treated  as  a  hardy  annual. 
Seeds  are  sown  in  hot-bed,  greenhouse,  or  window  box  in 
March,  and  the  seedlings  transplanted  outdoors  in  May. 
Or  the  seed  may  be  sown  outdoors  as  soon  as  the  ground 
is  in  good  condition  and  thinned  to  six  inches  apart  in 
the  row. 

Parsley  is  a  cool- weather  plant,  requiring  rich,  moist 
soil  for  its  best  development.  In  the  hottest  summer 
weather  it  does  better  in  shade  than  in  full  exposure  to 
the  sun.  Plants  may  be  taken  up  in  autumn  and  planted 
in  window  boxes  for  winter  use.  The  outer  leaves  and 
leaf-stems  are  pulled  off  for  use,  but  care  should  be 
taken  always  to  leave  some  to  keep  the  plant  growing. 
Three  types  of  leaves  are  now  grown — the  Plain,  the 
Curled,  and  the  Fern-leaved  sorts.  The  Dwarf  Curled 
ones  are  most  popular. 

Cress  and  Endive 

In  city  markets  small  bunches  of  Water  Cress  are 
commonly  sold  for  salads  and  garnishing  meat  dishes. 
This  is  a  perennial  plant  found  in  our  brooks  and  easily 
propagated  e^her  by  seed  or  cuttings.  It  thrives  best 
along  the  margins  of  streams,  where  the  running  water 
keeps  it  clean,  healthy,  and  healthful,  but  it  may  be 
grown  in  almost  any  moist  location  where  the  water 
supply  never  fails.     This  is  really  a  much  more  desirable 


SALAD   CROPS  49 

plant  than  the  Garden  Cress,  which  is  easily  grown  in 
spring  or  fall  in  rich,  moist  soil.  The  leaves  of  garden 
cress  are  rather  too  peppery  for  most  people  to  enjoy. 

Endive  is  much  more  generally  used  in  Europe  than 
America.  It  is  used  both  as  a  salad  plant  and  as  a  pot 
herb  for  greens.  For  salads  the  leaves  are  blanched 
by  tying  them  together.  Seed  sown  very  early  in  spring 
will  develop  into  plants  for  use  in  summer,  or  seed  sown 
in  early  summer  will  mature  for  use  in  autumn.  There 
are  two  principal  types — the  Curled  or  Fringed  and  the 
Broad-leaved  Endives. 


PULSE  CROPS:  BEANS  AND  PEAS 

Beans 

Types  of  Seeds 

Collection  of  seeds  of  as  many  varieties  as  possible, 
gotten  together  with  the  help  of  pupils. 
Learn  to  know  each  of  these  types : 

Pea  beans  or  field  beans 

String  beans 

Shell  beans 

Lima  beans 
Make  a  set  of  drawings  for  booklet. 

Seed  Germination 

Ten  beans  for  each  pupil. 
Determine  the  percentage  of  germination. 
Leave  seeds  in  the  germinating  dish  until  you  can  see 
easily  these  parts : 

Outer  skin 

Thickened  seed-leaves  or  cotyledons 

Root 

Plumule  or  Httle  plant 
Make  a  drawing  for  the  booklet. 
50 


BEANS  AND   PEAS  51 


Root  Nodules 

Dig  up  plants  carefully.  Examine  roots  to  see  if 
little  whitish  nodules  are  present  on  them. 

If  bean  roots  in  one  garden  have  nodules  and  those  in 
another  do  not,  notice  which  plants  are  the  more  vigorous. 

Enemies 

Find  pods  affected  by  pod-spot  or  anthracnose.    Draw. 
Find  beans  in  storage  affected  by  bean  weevil.     Look 
at  the  insects  through  a  lens. 

Peas 

Types  of  Seeds 

Collection  of  seeds  including  smooth  white  field  peas, 
smooth  blue  peas,  and  wrinkled  peas. 
Sort  out  the  peas  into  these  three  kinds: 
Smooth  field  peas 
Smooth  blue  peas 
Wrinkled  peas 
Learn  what  varieties  are  generally  planted  for  green 
peas  in  your  neighborhood. 

Seed  Germination 

Determine  the  percentage  of  germination  of  the  peas 
to  be  planted  in  the  outdoor  garden. 

Pea  Weevil 

Find  peas  in  storage  that  show  presence  of  pea  weevil. 
Study  through  a  lens  the  appearance  of  the  insects 
and  the  holes  they  make  in  the  seed. 


52 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


Ordering  Seeds 

Write  an  order  on  your  local  dealer  or  one  of  the  seed 
houses  for  enough  peas  to  plant  your  garden,  naming  a 
succession  of  varieties. 


PULSE   CROPS 
Beans 

Two  distinct  species  of  Beans  are  commonly  grown  for 
garden  purposes — the  Field  or  Kidney  Bean,  Phaseolus 
vulgaris,  and  the  Lima  or  Sugar  Bean,  Phaseolus  lunatus. 
Both  are  beheved  to  be  natives  of  tropical  America,  and 
the  typical  forms  of  both  are  pole  or  climbing  beans, 
although  dwarf  or  bush  forms  of  each  are  largely  grown. 

The  Field  or  Kidney  Bean  serves  two  important  pur- 
poses. It  is  largely  used  both  in  the  condition  of  the 
ripened  dry  seeds  and  in  that  of  the  green  seeds  or  pods. 
For  shell  and  string  beans  both  climbing  and  bush  varie- 
ties are  grown,  the  latter  being  most  popular,  while  for 
the  ripened  field  beans,  only  bush  varieties  are  grown. 

The  Bush  String  Beans  form  one  of  the  most  important 
vegetable  crops.  They  are  commonly  divided  into  the 
Yellow-podded  or  Wax  Beans  and  the  Green-podded 
Beans.  The  shape  of  the  pods  varies  greatly  in  both 
colors,  but  in  all  good  varieties  when  well  grown  the  pod 
is  thick  and  meaty  and  can  be  easily  broken  with  little 
or  no  '^ string"  along  the  inner  edge.  The  seed  is  com- 
monly planted  either  in  drills  or  hills  in  garden  practice, 
a  succession  of  sowings  being  made  about  three  weeks 
apart  to  produce  successive  crops.  If  no  pods  are 
allowed  to  ripen  the  vines  will  continue  to  bear  a  month 
or  more.  Early  varieties  of  string  beans  are  ready  for 
use  about  seven  weeks  after  planting. 

53 


54  CROP  PRODUCTION 

Field  beans  are  planted  in  rows  two  feet  or  more  apart, 
the  plants  being  about  four  inches  apart  in  the  row.  On 
a  large  scale  the  seed  is  put  in  with  seed  drills,  special 
care  being  taken  to  have  the  soil  in  good  tilth,  so  that 
the  tillage  with  hoe  and  cultivator  may  be  easy  and 
effective.  After  the  plants  are  well  grown,  shallow 
cultivation  only  must  be  given  to  avoid  disturbing  the 
b§an  roots  which  grow  near  the  soil  surface. 

The  crop  may  be  harvested  by  hand  and  tied  in 
'^shooks,"  but  those  who  grow  many  acres  generally 
use  a  two-wheeled  bean  harvester  which  does  the  work 
very  rapidly,  cutting  off  the  stems  close  to  the  ground 
and  leaving  the  vines  in  windrows.  The  pods  were 
formerly  shelled  by  hand  flails,  but  in  the  more  important 
bean-growing  regions*  they  are  now  threshed  by  special 
machines  called  ''beaners."  A  yield  of  twenty-five 
bushels  of  shelled  beans  per' acre  is  a  good  crop. 

As  the  Bush  Beans  have  largely  taken  the  place  of  the 
Pole  Beans  for  garden  and  field  growth,  so  the  Bush 
Lima  Beans  have  taken  the  place  of  the  Pole  Limas  in 
our  gardens.  There  are  three  types  of  these  Bush 
Limas,  corresponding  to  the  three  types  of  Pole  Limas: 
the  large  flat-seeded  type,  represented  by  Burpee's  Bush 
Lima;  the  medium,  thick,  or  potato-seeded  type, 
represented  by  Dreer's  Bush  Lima,  and  the  small  seeded 
type,  represented  by  Henderson's  Bush  Lima.  The 
last  named  is  the  best  for  northern  regions  as  it  is  earher 
and  hardier  than  the  others. 

All  the  beans  belong  to  the  great  Legume  Family  and 
have  the  power  of  fixing  nitrogen  from  the  air  by  means 
of  bacterial  nodules  on  their  roots.  In  most  gardens 
where  beans  are  grown  the  necessary  germs  are  likely  to 


BEANS   AND   PEAS  55 

be  present,  but  in  soils  where  few  nodules  develop  upon 
the  bean  roots  it  will  be  worth  while  to  experiment  with 
inoculation  by  means  of  special  cultures.  This  abihty 
of  the  bean  to  fix  free  nitrogen  should  be  taken  in  con- 
sideration when  planning  for  fertilizers.  A  loamy  soil 
with  a  fair  amount  of  humus  is  likely  to  require  only 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid  for  the  growth  of  beans.  The 
crop  thrives  on  a  clover  sod  plowed  and  put  in  good  tilth. 
A  soil  too  rich  in  nitrogen  is  likely  to  produce  vines 
rather  than  seeds.  In  garden  culture,  however,  it  is 
sometimes  worth  while  to  hasten  the  early  growth  by 
a  Httle  nitrate  of  soda  or  similar  fertilizer. 

Beans  being  of  tropical  origin  are  essentially  warm- 
weather  crops.  They  are  tender  to  frost  and  the  seed 
rots  in  cold,  wet  soil.  Consequently  planting  should  be 
delayed  until  the  soil  is  well  warmed  and  the  danger 
from  frost  is  past.  Lima  Beans  require  more  tim.e  to 
mature  than  the  ordinary  sorts  and  so  should  be  given 
the  sunniest  location,  especially  in  northern  regions. 

Enemies 

Anthracnose,  Pod-spot,  or  Rust  as  it  is  variously  known 
is  the  most  destructive  fungous  disease  of  the  Bean.  It 
shows  on  the  young  pods  in  the  shape  of  small  reddish 
brown  spots  that  soon  increase  in  size  and  become 
blackish  in  the  center.  The  pod  shrinks  and  the  young 
beans  inside  often  shrivel  up  so  as  to  be  of  little  value. 
The  disease  is  most  destructive  in  wet  seasons  and 
its  spores  are  easily  distributed  if  the  vines  are  hoed 
or  cultivated  when  they  are  wet.  Consequently  they 
should  be  tilled  only  when  dry.  The  spores  winter 
over  on  the  diseased  seeds,  which  start  the  infection  the 


56  CROP   PRODUCTION 

season  after.  Consequently  an  important  preventive 
measure  is  to  choose  seed  from  fields  or  pods  in  which 
the  disease  is  not  present. 

The  Bean  Weevil  is  about  the  only  insect  enemy  that 
is  generally  destructive  to  this  crop.  The  eggs  are  laid 
inside  the  green  pods  by  the  small  brown  beetles.  The 
larvae  that  hatch  from  these  eggs  feed  upon  the  beans 
for  about  a  month;  then  they  change  again  to  beetles. 
They  are  able  to  develop  also  in  dry  stored  beans,  but 
are  easily  destroyed  in  these  by  fumigation  with  carbon 
bisulphid. 

Peas 

While  the  garden  bean  is  a  tender  plant  from  tropical 
regions  requiring  a  warm  soil  and  season  for  thrifty 
growth,  the  Garden  Pea  is  a  hardy  plant  from  northern 
regions  requiring  a  cool  soil  and  climate  for  its  best 
growth.  Peas  have  been  cultivated  for  more  than 
twenty  centuries  and  probably  were  originally  grown 
as  garden  plants  in  Asia,  where  the  Wild  Pea,  Pisum 
sativum,  is  a  native  species.  The  characters  have  been 
so  greatly  modified  that  the  garden  varieties  now  grown, 
are  great  improvements  over  the  original  form.  There 
are  dwarf,  medium,  and  tall  sorts,  and  those  with  sm.all 
or  large  seeds  and  pods.  The  Field  Pea,  grown  for  forage, 
is  ranked  as  a  special  variety  of  the  garden  species. 

The  Garden  Peas  are  commonly  divided  into  two 
principal  groups  —  the  Smooth-seeded  and  the  Wrinkled- 
seeded  Peas.  The  Smooth-seeded  sorts  are  firmer  and 
hardier;  the  seed  can  be  planted  very  early  with  Httle 
danger  of  rotting  in  the  ground,  but  the  resulting  crop 
is  poor  in  quality  and  soon  becomes  too  hard  to  be 


BEANS   AND   PEAS  57 

relished.  The  Wrinkled-seeded  sorts  are  softer  and  more 
tender;  if  planted  too  early  the  seed  is  likely  to  rot  in 
the  soil,  but  the  quaHty  of  the  crop  is  very  good  and  the 
peas  remain  on  the  vines  in  good  condition  for  some  time. 
Practically  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  plant  the  smooth 
sorts,  like  Alaska,  except  to  get  two  or  three  very  early 
pickings.  The  smooth  sorts  may  be  planted  as  soon  as 
the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  but  the  others  should 
not  be  planted  until  two  or  three  weeks  later. 

Culture 

The  most  approved  way  of  planting  Peas  is  to  have  two 
parallel  rows  about  six  inches  apart,  with  about  two 
feet  distance  between  each  double  set.  Then  in  the  case 
of  the  taller  sorts,  brush  may  be  placed  in  the  six-inch 
space  and  serve  for  both  rows,  or  in  the  case  of  medium 
or  dwarf  forms  the  vines  will  support  one  another.  For 
early  crops  the  dwarf  varieties  are  planted,  and  for  late 
the  tall  ones,  though  many  people  prefer  to  plant  for 
midseason  and  late  crops  a  succession  of  such  a  splendid 
variety  as  the  Telephone.  Peas  thrive  best  on  a  light, 
loamy  soil.  On  a  heavy  soil,  especially  if  rich  in  nitro- 
gen, they  are  likely  to  run  to  vine  rather  than  to  pods. 
A  little  quick-acting  fertilizer  in  the  rows  at  planting 
time  helps  to  get  the  seedlings  well  started. 

Enemies 

The  most  destructive  fungous  diseases  of  Peas  are  the 
Spot  and  the  Powdery  Mildew.  The  Spo^.  attacks  stems, 
leaves,  and  pods,  forming  characteristic  blackish  blotches 
and  interfering  with   the  growth  of   the  plant.     The 


58  CROP   PRODUCTION 

planting  of  seed  from  fields  free  from  the  disease  and 
adequate  rotation  are  the  chief  preventive  measures. 
The  Powdery  Mildew  is  often  troublesome  late  in  the 
season  and  in  rather  moist  climates.  The  methods  of 
preventing  the  Spot  disease  are  also  helpful  for  this. 

The  most  destructive  insect  enemies  of  Peas  are  the 
Pea  Aphis  and  the  Pea  Weevil.  The  Aphis,  fortunately, 
is  only  abundant  during  occasional  years  and  ordinarily 
is  not  troublesome.  The  Weevil  is  more  regular  in  ap- 
pearance. Its  life-history  is  similar  to  that  of  the  bean 
weevil.  If  all  the  pea  weevils  present  in  a  locality  in 
spring  are  destroyed  by  concerted  action  in  fumigating 
stored  peas  with  carbon  bisulphid,  there  will  be  little 
trouble  from  the  pest. 


VINE  CROPS:    SQUASHES,  MELONS,  AND  CUCUMBERS 
Squashes 
Types 
Samples  of  different  varieties  or  mounted  pictures 
from  seed  catalogues  of  different  types  of  squashes. 

Let  each  pupil  name  the  types  that  he  has  seen  in 
garden,  cellar,  or  market. 

Seed  Germination 
Ten  seeds  of  squash,  pumpkin,  or  cucumber  for  each 
pupil. 

Leave  in  the  germinating  dish  until  the  root  is  an  inch 
long. 

Study  the  sprouting  seeds  to  find  these  parts: 
Outer  seed-coat 
Inner  seed-coat 
Seed-leaves  or  cotyledons 
Plumule 

Growing  Seedlings 

Plant  twenty  or  more  seeds  in  a  window  box  or  indi- 
vidual flower  pots. 

When  the  seedlings  come  up,  watch  to  see  how  the 
plant  gets  out  of  the  seed-coat. 

59 


6o 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


Write  a  story  telling  what  you  see  and  illustrate  the 
story  by  drawings. 

Enemies  {May  to  October) 

Find  eggs  and  the  various  stages  of  the  black  squash- 
bugs.  Try  the  plan  of  trapping  the  adults  in  early 
summer  by  placing  old  shingles  or  boards  near  the  plants. 
Look  under  these  early  in  the  morning  to  find  the  bugs. 

Find  examples  of  striped  or  spotted  cucumber-beetles. 
Try  cheap  tobacco  powder  as  a  repellent. 


VINE    CROPS 

The  Vine  Crops  belong  to  the  great  family  of  Cucur- 
bits iCucurhitaceae) .  The  native  home  of  most  species 
of  this  group  is  in  tropical  regions,  where  an  abundance 
of  warmth  and  moisture  furnish  ideal  conditions  for 
growth  through  long  seasons.  So  it  is  natural  to  find 
these  plants  easily  injured  by  frost  and  unable  to  grow 
in  cold  soil.  They  require  the  warmest  summer  weather 
for  their  development,  and  in  northern  regions  must  be 
given  every  possible  advantage  in  inducing  a  rapid  start 
and  an  early  maturity. 

The  principal  Vine  Crops  are  easily  separated  into  three 
important  groups  —  the  Cucumbers  and  Muskmelons 
of  the  genus  Cucumis,  in  which  the  short-stalked  pollen- 
bearing  flowers  are  borne  in  clusters;  the  Squashes  and 
Pumpkins  of  the  genus  Cucurbita,  in  which  the  long- 
stalked  pollen-bearing  flowers  are  solitary;  and  the 
Watermelons  of  the  genus  Citrullus,  in  which  the 
pollen-bearing  flowers  are  also  solitary,  but  borne  on 
short  stalks. 

In  all  members  of  the  family  the  pollen-bearing,  or 
staminate,  and  fruit-producing,  or  pistillate,  flowers  are 
separated,  though  borne  upon  the  same  vine.  The 
pollen  is  carried  from  one  kind  of  flower  to  the  other 
chiefly  by  bees,  especially  bumble  bees,  which  are  very 
useful  in  this  way. 

♦         6i 


62  CROP   PRODUCTION 

Cucumbers  and  Muskmelons 

The  Cucumber  is  a  standard  crop  in  every  garden. 
It  »an  be  grown  in  a  shorter  season  than  the  other 
Vine  Crops,  both  because  it  is  eaten  green  and  because 
it  matures  more  quickly.  The  fruits  for  pickHng  are 
pulled  when  quite  small  and  those  for  eating  fresh  as 
soon  as  they  reach  full  size.  The  Cucumber  is  one  of 
the  most  important  truck  crops,  especially  in  the  south, 
from  whence  vast  quantities  are  shipped  north  in  winter 
and  early  spring.  It  is  also  an  important  crop  for 
forcing  houses  in  the  north.  Colonies  of  bees  are  kept 
in  the  Cucumber  houses  to  bring  about  the  pollination 
of  the  blossoms. 

The  Muskmelons  are  so  variable  in  form  and  structure 
that  they  have  been  separated  into  several  groups,  of 
which  the  Cantaloupes  and  the  Netted  Muskmelons  are 
the  most  important  commercially.  In  the  Cantaloupe 
the  rind  is  hard  and  generally  rough  or  scaly,  while  in 
the  Netted  or  Nutmeg  Muskmelons  the  rind  is  softer 
and  netted  or  reticulated  on  the  outside.  The  famous 
Rocky  Ford  melons  are  typical  examples  of  the  netted 
type,  which  includes  the  most  popular  varieties  now 
grown.  In  certain  regions  the  crop  of  these  melons  is 
the  most  important  product  of  the  soil. 

Squashes,  Pumpkins,  and  Gourds 

The  Squashes,  Pumpkins,  and  Gourds  are  closely 
related  plants,  the  first  named  being  the  most  important 
as  a  vegetable.  Two  types  of  Squashes  are  commonly 
grown  —  the  Bush  or  Summer  and  the  Running  or  Winter 
Squashes.     The  Summer  Squashes  are  related  to   the 


SQUASHES,   MELONS,   AND   CUCUMBERS     63 


Pumpkin.     They  vary  greatly  in  form,  some  having  the 

shape  of  a  Pumpkin,  others  having  a  long  crook-neck, 

and  others  having  an  outline 

suggestive  of  a  pineapple.    The 

vines   of   these    run    httle   or 

not  at    all,   and  so  the  hills 

may   be    planted   only   about 

four  feet  apart.      The  Winter 

Squashes  vary   also   in  form, 

the  Hubbard,  shown  on  page 

60,  and  the  Turban,  shown  on 

this  page,  being   two   of   the 

most  distinctive  types.     The  'r™''-^^  s<^"'^^« 

vines  of  these  run  so  far  that  the  hills  must  be  about 

eight  feet  apart. 


Watermelons 

Most  Vine  Crops   appear   to   be   native   to   tropical 
America;,  but  the  Watermelon  is  native  to  tropical  Africa. 

It  is  now  grown  in  our 
southern  states  to  a 
greater  extent  than 
elsewhere,  vast  quan- 
tities being  shipped 
to  northern  markets 
every  year.  The  long 
warm  season  and  light 
soil  of  many  southern 
regions  afford  ideal 
Developing  Hubbard  Squash,  Show-  conditions  for  Water- 
iNG  Withered  Flower  ^^^^^^      ^^      develop, 

but  even  in  the  short  seasons  of  the  northern  states 


64 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


certain  selected  varieties  may  be  brought  to  maturity, 
especially  if  the  seedlings  are  started  early  in  the  hot- 
bed or  greenhouse.  The  Citron  Melon  is  a  special  type 
of  the  Watermelon  which  is  grown  for  preserving. 

Enemies 

The  Vine   Crops   are   subject   to   serious   injury  by 
several  insects.     As  soon  as  they  come  up   they  are 
likely  to  find  the  Cucumber-beetles   and 
/      i  the  Black  Squash-bug  waiting  to  attack 

/  \Wy\  them.  When  the  true  leaves  develop 
they  are  Hable  to  attract  the  Httle  Melon 
Aphis,  and  when  the  stems  begin  to 
lengthen  the  Squash-vine  borer  is  likely  to 
feed  upon  them. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  Cucumber- 
beetles — ^the  Striped,  more  common  in  the 
north,  and  the  Spotted,  more  common 
in  the  south.  Both  attack  Melons, 
Squashes,  and  Pumpkins  as  well  as 
Cucumbers.  They  eat  the  leaves  and 
stems  of  the  young  plants  and  deposit  eggs  that 
hatch  into  larvae  that  burrow  through  the  roots.  Using 
cloth  or  wire  screens  over  the  young  vines  until  they  are 
well  started  is  a  helpful  measure.  So  is  a  heavy  mulch- 
ing of  refuse  tobacco  powder  or  an  appHcation  of  Bor- 
deaux mixture. 

About  the  only  way  to  get  ahead  of  the  Black  Squash- 
bugs  is  to  place  shingles  or  short  boards  near  the  plants: 
the  bugs  will  seek  these  for  shelter  at  night  and  may  be 
collected  early  in  the  morning. 


Squash  Bug 
Magnified 


SQUASHES,   MELONS  AND   CUCUMBERS      65 


Vine  Crops 


f  Cucumbers     { 


( Field 


Genus  Cucumis 


Genus  Cucurhita 
\ 


[  Muskmelons 

Pumpkins 
Gourds 

Squashes 


Genus  CitruUus    {Watermelon 
I  Citron  melon 


[  Forcing 

I  Cantaloupe 

i  Netted  or  nutmeg 


Summer  or  Bush 
Winter  or  Running 


SOLANACEOUS   CROPS:    TOMATO,   PEPPER, 
AND   EGGPLANT 

Tomato 

Seed  Testing 

Ten  or  more  seeds  for  each  pupil. 
Find  the  percentage  of  germination. 

Growing  Seedlings 

Start  seedlings  in  window  box  in  February  or  March. 
Transplant  to  three-inch  paper  pots  when  they  have 
two  or  three  true  leaves. 

Pepper 

Growing  Seedlings 

Start  seedlings  in  window  boxes,  hot-beds,  or  cold 
frames  in  March  or  April. 

Transplant  when  they  have  two  or  three  true  leaves. 
Set  out  in  the  garden  when  danger  from  frost  is  past. 


66 


THE  NIGHTSHADE  FAMILY 

The  Nightshade  Family  {Solanaceae)  includes  the 
Potato,  Tomato,  Pepper,  Eggplant,  Husk  Tomato,  and 
many  wild  plants.  The  Potato  differs  from  the  others  in 
that  it  is  the  tuber  rather  than  the  fruit  which  is  used  for 
food,  and  so  it  has  already  been  considered  as  a  tuber 
crop. 

The  three  important  solanaceous  crops  whose  fruits 
are  used  for  food  —  Tomato,  Pepper,  and  Eggplant  — 
are  native  to  tropical  regions.  Consequently  they  are 
tender  to  frost  and  yet  require  a  long  season  for  develop- 
ment. So  the  seedlings  must  be  started  in  greenhouse, 
hot-bed,  or  window  garden,  that  the  young  plants  may  be 
set  out  when  danger  from  frost  is  past.  They  require 
hot  weather  for  their  best  growth  and  should  be  given  a 
good  start  at  the  time  of  transplanting  by  means  of  a 
rich  soil  or  nitrogenous  fertilizer  or  both.  They  should 
be  started  under  glass  one  or  two  months  before  the  time 
they  are  to  be  set  out. 

The  Tomato 

The  various  forms  of  the  cultivated  Tomato  are  de- 
rived from  a  plant  native  to  the  western  part  of  South 
America.  Although  the  plant  has  been  in  cultivation 
for  more  than  three  centuries,  it  is  only  during  compara- 
tively recent  years  that  it  has  been  generally  used  for 
food.  It  has  now  reached  a  high  degree  of  development, 
67 


68 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


with  many  distinct  types  of  plant  and  fruit  and  a  great 

number  of  varieties. 

The  garden  culture  of  Tomatoes  is  very  simple.     The 

plants  are  set  out  in  May  three  to  three  and  a  half  or  four 

feet  apart  and  given  good 
tillage  until  the  fruit  is 
well  set.  It  is  better  to 
hold  the  plants  up  with 
some  support,  either  ty- 
ing to  stakes  or  using 
various  forms  of  trellises. 
It  is  generally  worth  while 
to  fasten  a  bit  of  stiff 
paper  around  the  stalk  of 
the  plant  when  it  is  set 
out  to  prevent  injury  by 
cutworms. 

The  Tomato  has  lately 
become     an     important 
truck  crop.    Great   quan- 
ToMATo  IN  Paper  Flower  Pot      cities  are     grown     in    the 

south  every  winter  for  shipment  to  northern  markets. 

It   has    also   become    an    important   greenhouse    crop 

near  large  cities  in  the  north. 

Pepper  and  Eggplant 

The  Red  Pepper  is  also  a  native  of  tropical  America 
and  was  first  discovered  by  Europeans  when  Columbus 
made  his  most  famous  voyage.  It  is  often  called  Chili 
Pepper  and  belongs  to  the  genus  Capsicum.  There  are 
now  many  types  and  varieties,  though  the  botanists 
think  that  originally  there  were  only  one  or  two  wild 


TOMATO,   PEPPER,   AND   EGG  PLANT       69 

species.  In  garden  culture  the  treatment  is  much  like 
that  of  Tomatoes,  though  no  supports  are  needed.  It 
is  a  simple  matter  for  any  one  to  grow  enough  of  these 
Peppers  for  home  use. 

The  Eggplant  is  more  difficult  to  grow  than  either  the 
Tomato  or  the  Pepper.  It  is  essentially  a  tropical  species 
and  requires  much  hot  weather  to  develop  properly. 
It  is  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  southern 
states,  but  very  little  in  the  northern.  The  plants  require 
an  early  start  and  rapid  growth  for  succcessful  results. 


II 


FLOWER  CROPS 


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From  TAc  Flower  Beautiful 

China  Asters  in  a  Bamboo  Wall  Holder 


ANNUAL  FLOWERS 

Nasturtium 
Flower  Structure 
A  flower  for  each  pupil. 
Study  the  structure  of  the  flower.     Find  these  parts: 

The  outer  sepals 

The  colored  petals 

The  nectar  spur 

The  stamens 

The  pistils 
Find  out  what  part  develops  into  the  seed-pod. 
Draw  a  side  view  of  a  flower. 

Seed  Harvest  {Summer  and  Autumn) 
Gather  ripe  pods  from  garden.     Store  for  future  use. 
See  the  difference  between  the  outer  pod  and  the  inner 
seed. 

Growing  Seedlings  Indoors 
Sow  seeds  of  the  dwarf  nasturtiums  in  a  sunny  window. 
Dig  up  part  of  the  seedhngs  for  drawings;  leave  some 
to  grow. 


74  CROP   PRODUCTION 

California  Poppy 
Flower  Structure 
Study  buds  and  blossoms  in  garden  or  newly-picked 
in  schoolroom.     See: 

The  sepals  that  fall  off  as  the  flower  opens 

The  petals 

The  stamens 

The  pistils 

The  various  stages  of  the  seed-pod 

Seed  Harvest 

Collect  seed-pods  in  autumn.  Store  for  sowing  in 
early  spring. 

Seed  Planting  {Spring) 

Early  in  spring  sow  the  seeds  sparingly  in  a  little  drill 
or  furrow  along  the  border  of  the  flower  garden. 

Thin  the  seedHngs  to  six  or  eight  inches  apart. 

Keep  the  surface  of  the  soil  stirred  and  free  from 
weeds. 

In  a  garden  where  the  flower  grew  the  season  before 
there  are  likely  to  be  so  many  self-sown  seedlings  that 
sowing  the  seed  is  not  necessary. 

Pansy 

Flower  Show 

Early  in  autumn  or  late  in  spring  plan  for  a  Pansy 
Show. 

Let  each  pupil  bring  in  a  few  attractive  pansy  flowers 
of  as  many  colors  as  possible. 

Invite  parents  or  friends  to  send  others.  Have  draw- 
ings of  pansies  on  the  blackboard  and  colored  drawings 
mounted  on  paper. 


ANNUAL   FLOWERS  75 

Let  pupils  mount  colored  pictures  from  seed  catalogues. 
Let  pupils  make  dainty  invitations  to  give  their  friends. 

Drummond  Phlox 
Planting  Outdoors  {Spring) 
Early  in  May  plant  a  package  of  seed  in  a  row  in  the 
school  garden,  covering  lightly. 

When  the  seedlings  are  large  enough  to  transplant  let 
each  pupil  who  has  a  place  to  grow  them  take  a  few  home. 

Sweet  Peas 
Flower  Show  {Early  Autumn) 
A  sweet  pea  flower  show  is  well  worth  having  in  Sep- 
tember, soon  after  the  fall  term  opens.     Have  pupils 
and  friends  bring  in  as  many  kinds  as  possible. 

Decorate  the  room  with  blackboard  drawings  of  sweet 
peas  and  mounted  plates  from  seed  catalogues. 

Label  as  many  exhibits  as  possible  with  the  name  of 
the  variety. 

Germination  Test 
Shortly  before  it  is  time  to  sow  sweet  peas  outdoors, 
let  pupils  test  the  germination  of  a  few  of  the  seeds  they 
are  going  to  plant.     Always  test  all  old  seeds  saved  from 
the  year  before. 

Growing  Indoors 

Plant  seeds  in  late  autumn  or  early  winter  in  a  win- 
dow box  in  a  sunny  window.  Select  varieties  used  for 
forcing  in  greenhouses.  Earliest  of  All  is  a  good  one  for 
the  purpose. 

Water  carefully.  Furnish  support.  In  a  few  weeks 
the  plants  will  blossom.     Use  for  drawing  and  language. 


ANNUAL  FLOWERS 

Annual  flowers  are  very  satisfactory  garden  crops. 
The  seed  costs  but  little  and  the  yield  in  beautiful  blos- 
soms follows  soon  after  planting.  Most  of  them  can 
be  grown  in  such  Kmited  space  that  no  one  need  lack 
them  even  if  a  garden  is  not  available.  A  box  or  a 
barrel  may  be  made  to  produce  a  host  of  blossoms. 
There  is  space  here  to  discuss  only  a  few  of  the  most 
popular  of  these  flowers. 

Nasturtiums 

Three  common  types  of  Nasturtiums  are  grown  in 
our  gardens.  The  most  popular  of  these,  perhaps,  is 
the  Dwarf  Nasturtium,  which  has  smooth,  shiny  leaves 
and  beautiful  irregular  flowers. 

The  next  in  popularity  is  probably  the  Tall  or 
CHmbing  Nasturtium,  which  differs  from  the  Dwarf 
chiefly  in  its  climbing  stems  and  larger  habit. 

The  third  type  is  the  Lobb's  Nasturtium,  which  is 
known  at  once  by  its  hairy  leaves  and  stems :  it  is  also 
a  cHmbing  sort. 

These  Nasturtiums  are  aU  natives  of  South  America 
and  belong  to  the  genus  Tropoeolum.  They  are  tender 
annuals  of  the  easiest  culture  and  yield  a  profusion  of 
beautiful  flowers,  colored  in  tones  of  yellow,  orange, 
and  red. 

76 


ANNUAL   FLOWERS 


77 


The  California  Poppy 

The  California  Poppy  or  Eschscholtzia  is  a  native  of 
California  and  Oregon  recently  introduced  as  a  cultivated 
flower.  It  is  a  low  spreading  plant,  reaching  a  height 
of  twenty  inches,  with  finely  cut,  glaucous  foHage  and 
large  single  flowers  that 
were  originally  yellow,  but 
are  now  developed  into 
white,  orange,  red,  and 
striped  sorts.  The  sepals 
are  united  into  a  cap, 
which  is  dropped  off  when 
the  petals  open.  Though 
originally  a  perennial,  it  is 
treated  as  a  hardy  annual 
in  cultivation,  the  seed 
being  sown  where  the 
plants  are  to  flower  as  the 
seedHngs  are  hard  to  trans- 
plant successfully.  It  is 
especially  useful  for  the 
border  of  a  garden. 

The  Pansy 

The  Pansy  has  been  cultivated  for  so  many  centuries 
that  the  history  of  its  origin  is  unknown.  It  is  believed, 
however,  to  have  originated  from  the  Tricolored  Violet 
{Viola  tricolor),  a  charming  little  wild  plant,  abundant  in 
Europe  and  parts  of  America.  Like  other  violets  this  is 
a  perennial,  as  is  the  Pansy  when  left  to  itself. 

In  garden  practice  the  Pansy  does  best  when  treated 
as  an  annual,  growing  new  plants  from  seed  every  year 


California  Poppy 


78  CROP  PRODUCTION 

and  discarding  them  when  the  best  blossoming  period 
is  past.  The  seed  may  be  sown  late  in  summer  or  early 
in  autumn  for  spring  flowering  or  in  spring  for  late  sum- 
mer and  autumn  flowering.  The  Pansy  does  not  thrive 
in  direct  sunshine  in  the  hot  weather  of  midsummer, 
but  at  other  times  it  enjoys  full  exposure  to  the  sun. 
The  best  Pansy  seed  is  raised  by  specialists,  who  use  great 
care  in  selecting  strains  and  varieties. 

The  Drummond  Phlox 

The  various  varieties  of  the  Drummond  Phlox  are 
desirable  garden  annuals.  They  are  derived  from  the 
original  wild  form  found  in  Texas  by  the  botanist  Drum- 
mond, who  sent  the  seed  to  England  in  1836.  Its  beauty 
was  at  once  recognized  and  numerous  color  variations 
were  soon  developed:  white,  pink,  rose,  lilac,  scarlet, 
crimson  and  many  combinations  of  these  colors  are  now 
available.  Variations  in  form  have  also  developed,  the 
most  striking  being  the  Star  Phlox,  in  which  the  centers 
of  the  petals  are  prolonged  into  curious  rays. 

Phloxes  are  especially  desirable  for  cut  flowers  and  for 
massing  along  borders.  They  grow  readily  in  sunny 
situations  from  seed  sown  outdoors  after  the  early  frosts, 
and  bear  transplanting  as  well. 

The  True  Poppies 

Three  distinct  species  and  a  great  number  of  varieties 
of  annual  Poppies  are  in  cultivation.  The  most  popular 
are  forms  of  the  Corn  Poppy,  a  wild  plant  native  to 
Europe.  The  Shirley  Poppies  are  the  most  beautiful  of 
these.  The  leaves  and  stems  of  this  type  are  small  and 
slender  and  thickly  covered  with  fine  hairs.     The  flowers 


ANNUAL  FLOWERS  79 

will  bear  cutting  and  placing  in  water,  though  they  last 
but  a  short  time. 

The  forms  that  rank  next  in  popularity  have  been 
derived  from  the  Opium  Poppy  of  the  Orient,  one  of  the 
oldest  of  cultivated  flowers.  The  leaves  and  stems  of 
this  type  are  thick  and  succulent  and  have  a  smooth, 
hairless,  glaucous  surface.  A  great  variety  of  single  and 
double  flowers  belong  to  this  group,  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  being  the  Mikado,  Snowdrift,  and  Fairy  Blush. 

The  third  species,  the  Iceland  Poppy,  is  really  a  peren- 
nial, but  in  garden  practice  is  classed  as  an  annual.  It  is 
a  plant  with  small  leaves  and  slender  leafless  stems,  a 
native  of  arctic  regions,  where  it  is  often  very  abundant. 
All  these  Poppies  are  excellent  for  flower  borders.  They 
do  not  bear  transplanting  well,  so  the  seed  should  be 
sown  very  early  in  spring  where  the  plants  are  wanted. 
The  seeds  are  small  and  care  must  be  taken  to  cover  very 
lightly  if  at  all. 

The  Sweet  Pea 

The  Sweet  Pea  appears  to  have  been  in  cultivation 
for  more  than  three  centuries.  Originally  a  native  of 
Sicily,  the  Wild  Sweet  Pea  was  improved  by  a  great 
many  flower  lovers  until  in  1876  there  were  many  good 
varieties.  In  that  year,  however,  Henry  Eckford  of  Shrop- 
shire, England,  began  experimenting  with  it,  and  con- 
tinued for  the  rest  of  the  century.  During  this  time  he 
originated  nearly  a  hundred  new  varieties,  which  were 
wonderful  improvements  over  the  older  ones.  Conse- 
quently a  large  proportion  of  the  Sweet  Peas  now  grown 
are  Eckford  introductions.  There  are  several  distinct 
types  of  flowers  and  many  beautiful  colors. 


8o 


CROP   PRODUCTION 


The  culture  of  Sweet  Peas  is  simple,  provided  the 
seed  is  planted  very  early  in  spring.  This  is  done  in 
order  that  the  roots  may  get  a  good  development  during 
the  cool  weather  of  April  and  May.  A  rich  soil  is  de- 
sirable, though  if  too  much  nitrogen  is  present  the  plants 
are  likely  to  run  to  vines  rather  than  to  flowers.  The 
drill  for  planting  should  be  hollowed  out  three  or  four 
inches  deep  and  the  seeds  covered  with  an  inch  of  soil. 
After  the  plants  are  several  inches  high  the  httle  trench 
may  be  filled  in  level.  Birch  or  other  brush,  wire  netting 
or  some  similar  support  must  be  given  as  soon  as  the 
vines  begin  to  run.  The  flowers  must  be  picked  off,  as 
the  plants  soon  stop  blossoming  if  the  flowers  are  allowed 
to  go  to  seed. 


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ANNUAL  FLOWERS:    THE   COMPOSITES 

Cosmos  and  Others 
Flower  Show  (Autumn) 

Have  a  little  exhibit  of  the  composite  annual  flowers 
—  Cosmos,  China  Asters,  Marigolds,  Bachelor's  Buttons, 
Zinnias,  and  others. 

Separate  the  different  sorts  of  flowers  and  label  each 
sort. 

Many  pictures  and  suggestions  as  to  arrangement  may 
be  found  in  The  Flower  Beautiful.  Try  to  get  a  wall 
vase  for  the  school.  One  is  shown  with  China  Asters  in 
the  picture  on  page  72. 

Growing  Seedlings  (Spring) 

Early  in  May  sow  seed  of  cosmos  in  a  row  outdoors. 

Keep  the  soil  moist  and  free  from  weeds. 

When  the  seedlings  are  about  three  inches  high,  dig 
up  to  transplant  into  the  school  garden  or  the  home 
gardens  of  pupils. 


82  CROP  PRODUCTION 

China  Asters 
Flower  Types  {Autumn) 

Bring  in  various  aster  blooms  and  compare  them  to 
see  likes  and  unlikes. 

A  perfect  aster  of  any  of  the  double  varieties  should 
be  double  to  the  center.     See  which  have  this  character. 

Seed  Harvest  {Autumn) 

Mark  several  perfect  blossoms  by  tying  a  bit  of  string 
or  raffia  around  the  stem.  Leave  these  flowers  on  the 
plant. 

When  the  petals  have  withered,  pick  the  flower  heads 
and  pull  off  the  seeds  to  store  away  and  sow  next  spring. 

Growing  Seedlings  {Spring) 

Early  in  spring  sow  aster  seeds  outdoors  in  one  or 
more  rows.  Sow  the  seeds  about  half  an  inch  apart 
and  cover  with  a  third  of  an  inch  of  fine  soil. 

Keep  the  ground  moist  and  free  from  weeds. 

When  the  seedlings  have  four  or  five  leaves,  transplant 
to  flower  borders  at  school  or  home. 

Make  drawings  of  the  seedhngs  for  the  flower  booklet. 

Marigolds 
Harvesting  Seeds  {Autumn) 

Gather  the  ripened  flower  heads  of  the  marigolds  in 
the  garden  and  remove  the  seeds.  Save  in  a  box,  keep- 
ing in  an  unheated  room  where  mice  cannot  get  at  the 
seeds. 


THE   COMPOSITE  ANNUALS  83 

Growing  Plants  Indoors 

Sow  seeds  of  dwarf  marigold  in  a  window  box,  cover- 
ing lightly. 

When  the  plants  have  two  true  leaves  in  addition  to 
the  seed  leaves,  transplant  into  small  paper  flower  pots, 
one  for  each  pupil. 

Let  pupils  water  and  care  for  the  plants  until  they 
bloom.     Then  let  each  take  his  own  home. 

Growing  Seedlings  (Spring) 

Sow  seeds  of  both  types  of  marigolds  in  the  school 
garden  early  in  May. 

Keep  the  soil  moist  and  free  from  weeds. 

When  the  seedlings  have  two  or  three  true  leaves,  let 
such  pupils  as  have  places  to  grow  flowers  take  the  seed- 
lings home  to  transplant  in  their  home  gardens. 

Make  drawings  for  the  flower  booklet. 


THE  COMPOSITE  ANNUALS 

The  great  family  of  composite  plants  of  which  the 
sunflower,  thistle,  and  daisy  are  familiar  examples  in- 
cludes several  of  the  most  beautiful  annuals.  The  type 
of  flower  in  this  family  is  capable  of  great  variation 
through  the  modification  of  the  form,  size,  and  color  of 
the  Httle  florets  crowded  together  in  a  head.  Conse- 
quently in  most  of  the  annuals  belonging  to  the  composite 
family  there  are  many  types  of  form  and  color.  Five 
of  the  most  important  of  these  flowers  are  the  Cosmos, 
China  Aster,  Marigolds,  Bachelor's  Button,  and  Zinnia. 

Cosmos 

The  Cosmos  is  one  of  the  newest  garden  annuals.  It 
was  introduced  only  during  later  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Mexico  was  the  original  home  of  the  plant. 
The  varieties  first  offered  grew  very  tall  and  bloomed 
very  late,  but  by  careful  selection  dwarf  earlier-flowering 
forms  were  soon  developed.  Most  of  these  bore  white, 
pink,  or  crimson  flowers  and  were  derived  from  the  species 
called  Cosmos  hipinnatus,  but  lately  new  forms  derived 
from  the  yellow-flowered  Cosmos  sulphureus,  also  a 
native  of  Mexico,  have  been  introduced.  The  variety 
Klondike  is  a  hybrid  between  the  two  species.  The 
largest  flower  yet  produced  is  shown  by  the  beautiful 
pink  variety  Lady  Lenox. 

84 


THE  COMPOSITE  ANNUALS 


8S 


The  Cosmos  is  one  of  the  most  useful  annuals  either  for 
border  gardens  or  interior  decoration.  Seed  may  be  sown  in 
good  loamy  soil  as  soon 
as  the  early  frosts  are 
past,  and  the  vigorous 
young  seedlings  trans- 
planted about  three 
feet  apart  along  a  wall, 
fence,  or  the  open 
border.  They  grow 
rapidly.  It  is  often 
desirable  to  pinch  out 
the  terminal  bud  of  the 
main  stalk  in  order  to 
induce  a  spreading 
bushy  habit.  It  is  well 
to  plant  the  late  flow- 
ering sorts  in  a  sunny 
sheltered  corner  where  the  early  frosts  of  autumn  will 
not  harm  them. 

China  Asters 

China  Aster  seeds  were  sent  from  China  to  France 
about  1730.  A  little  later  they  were  introduced  into 
England  and  America.  These  early  flowers  were  single 
forms,  resembling  an  Ox-eye  daisy  in  structure.  The 
various  double  types  now  grown  have  been  developed 
since.  The  modern  Giant  Comet  and  Ostrich  Plume 
types  are  wonderfully  beautiful  and  should  be  grown  by 
every  lover  of  flowers. 

The  natural  season  for  these  Asters  is  early  autumn, 
the  time  when  they  are  most  needed  in  the  borders. 


Cosmos  Flowers 


86 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


Seed  sown  in  drills  outdoors  early  in  May  will  soon  de- 
velop into  vigorous  seedlings  which  may  be  transplanted 
to  the  bed  or  border  where  the  blossoms  are  wanted. 

Great  numbers  of  Asters  are  grown  to  be  sold  by 
florists  in  the  cut-flower  trade.     For  this  purpose  long 

stems  and  perfect 
flowers  are  necessary. 
The  buds  are  some- 
times eaten  by  blister 
beetles,  which  should 
be  collected  and  killed. 
The  plants  are  likely 
to  suffer  from  a  sort 
of  bHght  if  grown  re- 
peatedly in  the  same 
soil.  To  prevent  this, 
rotation  and  careful 
seed  selection  are  nec- 
essary. The  China 
Aster  is  called  by 
botanists  Callistephus 
China  Asters  hortensis. 

The  Comet  Type 

Marigolds 

Two  distinct  species  of  Marigolds  are  commonly  culti- 
vated; the  Tall  Marigold  is  Tagetes  erecta;  the  Dwarf  or 
French  Marigold  is  Tagetes  patula.  Both  have  been  in 
cultivation  for  more  than  three  centuries  and  have  been 
developed  into  many  varieties. 

The  colors  of  the  TaU  form  range  only  through  yellow 
and  orange,  while  those  of  the  French  range  through 
yellow,  orange,  brown,  and  red.    The  color  tones  are 


THE   COMPOSITE   ANNUALS 


87 


remarkably  rich.  There  are  single  and  double  varieties 
in  both  species.  The  Dwarf  forms  are  desirable  for 
bedding  purposes,  while  the  Tall  forms  are  better  suited 
to  irregular  borders,  where  the  flowers  make  a  brilhant 
show  from  August  to  Octo- 
ber. 

The  culture  of  both  is 
easy:  sow  the  seed  outdoors 
in  spring  when  danger  from 
frost  is  past  and  transplant 
the  seedlings  when  two  or 
three  inches  high  to  the 
place  where  they  are  to 
bloom.  The  marigolds  have 
so  strong  an  odor  that  they 
are  not  much  used  for  cut 
flowers. 

Bachelor's  Button  and 
Zinnia 

The  Bachelor's  Button  is 

one    of    the    most    popular      Marigolds  in  a  Wall  Flower- 

Pocket 

hardy  annuals.     The  many 

varieties  have  been  developed  from  a  plant  native 
to  southeastern  Europe  called  by  botanists  Cantaurea 
cyanus.  The  flowers  range  to  many  colors  of  unusual 
purity  of  tone,  held  on  long  slender  stalks  that  give 
them  a  very  decorative  effect.  They  are  of  easiest 
culture  outdoors  and  extremely  useful  for  cut  flowers 
and  border  gardens. 

The  Zinnia  is  often  called  Youth  and  Old  Age.     The 
original  single  form  was  Zinnia  elegans,  a  native  of 


88  CROP   PRODUCTION 

Mexico.  Double  varieties  were  developed  in  France 
about  i860.  Since  then  many  new  sorts  have  been 
introduced.  The  flowers  are  remarkable  for  their  range 
of  colors,  though  these  are  largely  hard  and  metallic 
rather  than  soft  and  pleasing.  The  flowers  also  are 
rather  stiff  and  often  do  not  appeal  to  cultivated  tastes. 
Seed  is  sown  in  spring  out  of  doors,  the  young  seedhngs 
being  transplanted  later  to  the  border  garden  where 
they  are  to  flower. 


HARDY  PERENNIAL  FLOWERS 

Columbines 
Growing  Seedlings  {Spring) 

A  collection  of  columbines  is  especially  desirable  for 
the  school  border  garden. 

Sow  the  seed  sparsely  in  a  drill  early  in  spring,  cover 
lightly,  and  keep  well  watered. 

When  the  seedlings  are  well  up,  thin  to  five  inches 
apart,  transplanting  those  taken  up  to  another  row. 

Early  the  next  spring  transplant  to  permanent  posi- 
tions in  the  border,  leaving  ten  inches  between  the  plants. 

Give  surplus  plants  to  pupils. 


Harvesting  Seed  (Summer) 

As  the  columbine  blossoms  fade  they  are  followed  by 
the  characteristic  seed-pods.  Cut  these  off  after  they 
begin  to  ripen  but  before  they  split  open.  Lay  them  in 
a  box  and  when  they  split  open  thresh  out  the  seeds. 

Save  some  of  the  seed  for  future  planting  in  the  school 
garden.  Give  the  rest  to  such  pupils  as  will  agree  to 
plant  at  home. 

89 


90  CROP  PRODUCTION 

Peony 
Border  Bed 
Plant  peony  roots  late  in  autumn  or  early  in  the  spring 
in  a  partially  shaded  part  of  border. 
Have  the  soil  deep  and  very  rich. 

Flowers  for  Decoration 

Cut  the  blossoms  a  little  before  they  are  ready  to  open. 
Place  in  water  in  a  flower  bowl  and  keep  out  of  direct 
sunshine. 

Give  the  peony  bowl  plenty  of  room  for  display.  Do 
not  crowd  it  on  a  table  with  many  other  things. 

Perennial  Phlox 

This  is  a  good  plant  for  the  border  garden  of  the  school. 
If  there  is  a  long  vacation  in  summer  cut  off  the  tops  of 
the  plants  in  June  so  that  there  will  be  a  crop  of  blossoms 
in  September. 

Irises 
Border  Garden  Collection 

Be  sure  to  start  a  collection  of  Irises  for  the  border 
garden.  It  is  probable  that  garden  owners  who  have 
plants  will  willingly  contribute  two  or  three.  Get  as 
many  sorts  as  possible. 

After  the  plants  have  been  estabUshed  a  year  or  two 
they  may  be  divided  to  advantage,  and  soon  the  school 
will  be  able  to  distribute  many  to  the  homes  of  the  pupils. 

Flowers  for  Decoration 

Irises  are  particularly  effective  for  indoor  decoration. 
Cut  the  stalks  just  before  the  first  flowers  begin  to  open 


THE  HARDY  PERENNIALS 


91 


and  pull  off  each  day  afterwards  the  faded  blossoms. 
The  buds  will  open  in  succession.  Do  not  crowd  the 
Iris  flowers  in  the  vase  or  flower  jar. 

Sunflower  Family  Exhibit 

For  one  week  in  autumn  arrange  an  exhibit  of  as  many 
kinds  of  flowers  of  the  composite  type  as  you  can  get. 
Use  both  wild  and  cultivated  sorts.  The  list  might 
include  any  of  these:  Asters, Boltonias,  Chrysanthemums, 
Coreopsis,  Coneflowers,  Dahhas,  Daisies,  Goldenrods, 
and  Sunflowers.  Some  Coreopsis  flowers  are  pictured 
on  page  89. 


THE  HARDY  PERENNIALS 

The  Hardy  Perennials  form  one  of  the  most  important 
groups  of  flowering  plants.  They  have  the  great  ad- 
vantage over  the  annuals  in  that  when  once  planted 
under  favorable  conditions  they  will  continue  to  thrive 
for  many  years,  yielding  with  each  new  season  a  display 
of  foUage  and  flowers  that  is  of  greatest  importance 
in  beautifying  the  landscape  or  decorating  the  home. 
There  are  so  many  of  these  plants  now  available  to  gar- 
deners that  we  can  here  study  only  a  few  of  the  most 
important  types. 

Columbines  and  Anemones 

For  dehcate  grace  of  structure  and  exquisite  beauty 
of  color  few  perennial  flowers  can  rival  the  Aquilegias 
or  Columbines.  The  native  Wild  or  Canada  Columbine 
is  widely  distributed  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
closely  related  forms  are  found  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 
Many  other  species  from  this  and  other  countries  have 
been  introduced  to  garden  culture  as  well  as  many 
hybrids  developed  by  horticulturists.  In  some  forms 
the  nectar  spurs  are  very  long,  giving  the  flower  an 
extremely  decorative  effect.  The  Columbines  thrive  in 
moist  soil  or  sandy  loam  with  full  exposure  to  sunshine. 

The  Japanese  Anemones  or  Windflowers  are  attractive 
border  plants  on  account  of  the  large  white  or  pink 
blossoms  that  appear  in  August  or  later  in  the  season. 


Peonies  in  a  Flower  Jar 


93 


94  CROP  PRODUCTION 

The  flowers  are  held  singly  on  the  ends  of  erect  branch- 
ing stalks  that  rise  a  foot  or  more  above  the  main  foliage. 
Some  varieties  are  single,  others  semi-double,  and  others 
very  double.  The  flowers  last  well  when  cut  for  indoor 
use  and  the  plants  are  hardy  even  in  the  more  northern 
states. 

Peonies 

The  Peony  is  one  of  the  oldest,  hardiest,  and  most 
showy  of  border  perennials.  One  form  at  least  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  grown  for  thousands  of  years,  and 
more  than  two  hundred  distinct  varieties  are  now  in 
cultivation.  Most  of  these  have  been  developed  from  a 
wild  Peony  native  to  Siberia,  either  directly  or  through 
hybridizing  with  a  few  other  species  native  to  Europe 
and  Asia.  The  flowers  vary  greatly  in  color,  the  tones 
ranging  from  white  through  all  possible  tints  and  shades 
of  red,  violet,  lilac,  and  purple.  They  vary  so  in  form 
that  they  are  arranged  in  eight  distinct  classes,  thus: 

Single  Crown 

Japanese  Bomb 

Anemone  Semi-rose 

Semi-doiible  Rose  or  Double 

These  several  types  represent  the  various  stages,  from 
a  single  flower  with  a  row  of  petals  around  the  outside  and 
clusters  of  stamens  and  pistils  inside  to  the  fully  double 
form  in  which  both  stamens  and  pistils  have  been  trans- 
formed into  petal-like  bodies  called  petaloids. 

The  color  tones  of  Peony  petals  are  so  deHcate  that 
they  soon  fade  when  exposed  to  direct  sunshine.  Con- 
sequently the  flowers  remain  in  good  condition  longer 
when  the  plants  are  iu  partial  shade.    A  border  on  the 


THE   HARDY   PERENNIALS 


95 


north  or  east  of  trees  or  shrubs  is  a  good  place  for  Peonies. 
They  require  a  very  rich  soil:  before  planting  the  bed 
should  be  dug  out  to  a 
depth  of  three  feet  and  a 
good  compost  placed  in  the 
bottom.  Newly  set  plants  do 
not  reach  their  full  develop- 
ment for  several  years,  so 
that  when  once  established 
they  should  not  be  disturbed 
for  a  long  time.  The  blos- 
soming period  extends 
through  May  and  June.  The 
flowers  develop  to  best  ad- 
vantage if  the  stems  are  cut 
before  the  bud  opens  and 
placed  in  water  in  a  cool  room 
away  from   direct  sunshine. 

Peonies    are    multiplied   by  Perennial  Phlox 

divisions  of  the  erect,  thickened  roots tocks. 


Phloxes  and  Irises 

The  Perennial  Phloxes  deserve  the  popularity  they 
have  long  had  as  favorite  flowers  for  border  gardens. 
They  are  inexpensive  and  easy  to  establish  and  the 
plants  continue  thrifty  for  many  years.  The  long 
panicles  of  lovely  blossoms  make  a  very  attractive 
display  out  of  doors  and  remain  in  good  condition  for 
many  days  when  cut  for  indoor  decoration.  They 
multiply  by  division  at  the  root,  so  that  a  good-sized 
clump  will  furnish  many  new  plants.  SeedUngs  are  not 
so  Ukely  to  yield  good  flowers.    Phloxes  thrive  best  in 


96 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


a  rich,  moist  soil.  Their  season  of  bloom  may  be  pro- 
longed by  cutting  off  the  flowering  shoots  before  the 
petals  fade.  The  prevailing  colors  are  red,  white,  pink 
and  purple,  with  many  combinations  of  these. 

The  Irises  are  among  the  most  beautiful  of  all  flowers. 
The  broadly  expanded  petals  appearing  in  succession 
upon  the  tall  stems  combine 
with  the  sword-like  foliage 
to  make  one  of  the  most 
decorative  of  floral  combina- 
tions. There  are  many  sorts 
of  Irises:  they  are  common- 
ly classified  into  two  groups 
according  to  the  nature  of 
their  roots.  Some  Irises 
grow  from  bulbs:  these  are 
the  Bulbous  Irises;  other 
Irises  grow  from  rootstocks 
or  rhizomes:  these  are  the 
Roots tock  Irises.  The  Bulb- 
ous Irises  include  the 
Spanish  Irises  and  the 
English  Irises,  but  are  com- 
paratively unimportant. 

The  German  Iris  is  the 
most  familiar  type  of  the 
Rootstock  Irises.  It  has  long 
been  a  favorite  flower  and 
has  stayed  in  cultivation  for  years  in  many  old-fashioned 
gardens.  It  has  many  varieties,  with  the  colors  of  the 
flowers  showing  exquisite  tones  of  yellow,  violet,  purple, 
blue,    and    red.      The    Siberian    Iris  is  a  taller,  more 


Oriental  Irises  in  a  Japanese 
Flower  Jar 


THE   HARDY  PERENNIALS  97 

slender  type,  which  is  good  to  plant  just  back  of  the 
German  varieties.  The  Japanese  Irises  are  the  largest 
of  the  group,  splendid  flowers  held  on  stems  which  are 
often  three  or  four  feet  long.  There  are  also  many 
other  less  common  types  of  Irises,  most  of  which  are 
beautiful.  The  flowers  of  all  will  open  in  succession  if 
the  stems  are  cut  and  placed  in  water. 

These  various  Irises  are  among  the  most  satisfactory 
perennials  for  border  gardens.  They  complete  their 
seasonal  growth  late  in  summer  and  should  be  trans- 
planted early  in  autumn,  so  as  to  become  established 
before  winter.  The  Japanese  varieties  will  not  flourish 
in  soils  containing  lime,  so  care  should  be  taken  in  apply- 
ing bone  meal  or  similar  fertilizers  to  the  Iris  bed. 

The  Composites 

The  great  sunflower  family  or  Compositae  contains 
several  attractive  perennials  suitable  for  border  gardens. 
In  these  blossoms  many  tiny  flowers  or  florets  are  crowded 
together  to  form  a  compact  head.  The  individual 
florets  around  the  outside  commonly  form  conspicuous 
ray  florets  as  in  the  single  daisies. 

The  plants  which  we  call  Wild  Asters  the  English 
people  call  Michaelmas  Daisies.  They  are  so  abundant 
along  our  roadsides  and  in  our  fields  and  woods  that  we 
do  not  appreciate  them  for  garden  culture  as  fully  as 
our  Enghsh  cousins  do.  They  are,  however,  probably 
the  most  desirable  plants  for  flowering  late  in  autumn 
for  the  border  garden.  They  are  hardier  than  the 
Pompon  Chrysanthemums  and  will  thrive  with  less 
attention.  The  flowers  stand  several  degrees  of  frost 
without  injury,  so  they  are  able  to  make  a  brave  showing 


98  CROP  PRODUCTION 

through  October  and  even  into  November.  Some 
species  bloom  in  August,  but  the  larger  and  more 
attractive  ones  come  in  September  and  October.  The 
New  England  Aster,  of  which  there  are  several  distinct 
varieties,  is  one  of  the  best  species  for  garden  use. 

The  Boltonias  or  False  Chamoniles  are  tall  aster-like 
flowers  which  are  indispensable  for  late  blossoming  in 
the  border  garden.  They  are  taller  than  most  of  the 
asters  and  combine  finely  with  them,  both  as  to  form 
and  color.  Two  common  kinds  are  now  grown,  one 
white,  the  other  lavender-pink.  The  latter  is  the  larger 
and  more  attractive.  It  has  also  a  dwarf  variety  grow- 
ing but  two  feet  high.  All  three  Boltonias  are  hard} 
and  of  easy  growth.  When  estabHshed  the  clumps 
enlarge  by  means  of  spreading  rootstocks  and  produce 
great  masses  of  attractive  flowers. 

Chrysanthemums  and  Daisies 

We  love  the  Crocus  and  the  Snowdrop  because  they 
appear  before  the  snow  is  gone  and  show  that  spring  has 
come  again.  So  we  love  the  hardy  Chrysanthemums 
because  they  are  the  last  of  the  season's  flowers  and 
remain  beautiful  even  when  hidden  by  the  first  snow  of 
the  new  winter.  They  are  almost  as  hardy  as  the 
wild  asters  and  are  the  chief  dependence  of  northern 
gardens  for  outdoor  blossoms  in  November.  They  are 
often  called  Pompon  Chrysanthemums  because  of  the 
small  size  of  the  flowers.  The  flowers  show  all  the 
colors  of  the  large  chrysanthemums,  the  yellows  and 
reds  being  especially  attractive.  The  plants  are  hardy 
save  in  the  most  northern  states  and  reproduce  rapidly 
through   the   multiplying   rootstocks.    They   are   most 


THE  HARDY  PERENNIALS 


99 


effective  when  grown  in  masses  in  the  borders,  where 
their  late  blossoms  will  be  appreciated. 

The  charming  little  EngUsh  Daisy  is  not  much  grown 
in  American  gardens,  but  it  is  an  admirable  plant  for 
spring  blossoms  as  edging  for  a  border  garden  or  a  mixed 
flower  bed.  While  the  wild 
form  in  England  is  a  so- 
called  single  flower,  having 
a  yellow  center  and  white 
rays,  the  cultivated  Daisies 
are  double  or  nearly  so. 
The  flowers  are  white, 
pink,  or  red  and  in  im- 
proved sorts  reach  a 
diameter    of    two   inches. 

The  plants  commonly 
are  propagated  from  seed 
sown  in  August,  the  seed- 
lings being  wintered  in  a 
cold  frame  or  under  pro- 
tection of  loose  litter. 
They  blossom  the  following  spring.  The  plants  may 
also  be  propagated  by  division  of  the  crowns.  The  best 
results  are  obtained  by  starting  a  new  crop  of  plants 
from  seed  each  summer. 

The  Shasta  Daisies  are  very  different  from  the  English 
Daisy.  While  the  latter  is  only  a  few  inches  high  the 
former  is  a  tall  branching  plant  with  splendid  flowers  of 
the  single  composite  type.  This  plant  is  one  of  the  most 
notable  productions  of  Luther  Burbank,  the  famous 
plant-breeder  of  California.  The  newer  varieties  are 
great  improvements  over  the  original  form. 


Pompon  Chrysanthemums 


lOO  CROP  PRODUCTION 

GOLDENRODS  AND  SUNFLOWERS 

We  are  so  used  to  seeing  the  Goldenrods  in  our  fields 
and  along  our  highways  that  too  few  of  us  appreciate 
their  beauty.  Very  few  perennials  can  compare  with 
them,  however,  and  in  other  countries  they  are  highly 
prized  for  garden  planting.  The  color  harmonies  of  the 
asters  and  goldenrods  in  American  landscapes  are  most 
beautiful  and  these  plants  are  well  worth  growing 
together  in  border  gardens,  especially  in  front  of  thickets 
of  shrubs  or  trees.  The  species  found  in  any  locality 
serve  very  well  for  garden  planting.  They  may  readily 
be  transplanted  late  in  autumn  or  early  in  spring  to 
rich,  moist  soil.  With  good  treatment  they  improve 
greatly  in  the  garden. 

Various  other  composite  perennials  are  more  or  less 
grown  in  border  gardens.  The  various  Sunflowers, 
Pyrethrums,  Coneflowers,  and  Heleniums  are  the  most 
important  of  these.  They  are  all  hardy  and  of  easiest 
culture. 


SPRING-FLOWERING  BULBS 

Planting  Outdoors  {Autumn) 

During  October  the  pupils  should  plant  crocuses, 
tuUps,  jonquils,  and  daffodils.  Cover  to  a  depth  of 
about  four  times  the  height  of  the  bulb. 

Late  in  November  the  bulb  bed  should  be  mulched 
with  about  six  inches  of  fallen  leaves,  lawn  cHppings, 
or  strawy  manure,  as  a  protection  through  the  winter. 

Late  in  March  this  mulch  should  be  removed  to  enable 
the  leaves  and  flowers  to  come  up  properly. 

Planting  Indoors  {Autumn) 

Practically  all  of  the  spring-flowering  bulbs  may  be 
grown  to  advantage  by  pupils  for  winter  flowering  at 
school  and  home. 

Plant  in  October  in  paper  flower  pots  or  ordinary  flower 
pots.  Set  away  in  the  basement  cellar  or  bury  out- 
doors under  a  foot  of  leaves.  After  six  to  ten  weeks 
the  roots  will  be  well  grown  and  the  bulbs  may  be 
brought  to  the  light  and  heat  of  the  schoolroom  to  com- 
plete their  growth. 

Grow  at  least  a  few  large  hyacinth  bulbs  in  hyacinth 
glasses  as  shown  in  the  picture  above. 


x02  CROP  PRODUCTION 

Bulbs  grown  by  pupils  at  school  should  be  taken 
home  when  the  blossom  appears. 

Precise  direction  for  planting  each  kind  of  these  bulbs 
both  outdoors  and  in  school  may  be  found  in  The  School 
Garden  Book. 

A  special  booklet  of  drawings,  stories,  and  pictures 
cut  from  seed  catalogues  should  be  made  upon  this 
topic. 

Ordering  Bulbs 

Look  in  magazines  for  advertisements  of  dealers  in 
bulbs.     Send  for  some  catalogues. 

Let  each  pupil  write  as  an  exercise  in  language  an 
order  for  a  dollar's  worth  of  bulbs,  selecting  the  kinds 
he  would  prefer. 

Encourage  each  pupil  who  so  desires  to  send  off  such 
an  order  for  his  home  planting. 


SPRING-FLOWERING  BULBS 

The  spring-flowering  bulbs,  like  the  hyacinths,  tulips, 
daffodils,  crocuses,  and  several  kinds  of  narcissi,  form 
one  of  the  most  important  groups  of  flowering  plants. 
They  are  used  in  enormous  quantities  for  planting  in 
outdoor  gardens,  as  well  as  for  forcing  indoors  in  green- 
houses and  window  gardens.  During  winter  and  spring 
milHons  of  the  blossoms  forced  in  greenhouses  are  sold 
in  all  our  cities. 


Hyacinth  Bulbs  of  Good  Size 

Most  of  these  bulbs  are  grown  in  Holland  and  are 
imported  each  year.  So  they  are  commonly  called 
Dutch  bulbs.  Many  experiments  have  been  made  of 
late  in  growing  these  bulbs  in  America.  It  has  been 
found  that  they  can  be  produced  successfully  even  in 
such  widely  separated  states  as  North  Carohna  and 
Washington,  so  that  it  is  probable  that  in  the  future 
bulb  growing  will  become  an  important  industry  in  this 
country. 

103 


I04 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


Hyacinths 

The  common  Hyacinth  is  derived  from  a  species  that 
originally  grew  wild  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  It  is 
called  Hyacinthus  orientalis  or  Oriental  Hyacinth.  Prac- 
tically all  the  bulbs  are  now  grown  in  Holland,  so  it  is 
generally  called  the  Dutch 
Hyacinth.  The  bulbs  are 
used  largely  for  both  out- 
door planting  and  indoor 
forcing.  For  the  former 
purpose  they  should  be  put 
in  the  ground  early  in  Oc- 
tober, with  the  bottom  of  the 
bulb  six  inches  from  the  soil 
surface,  so  that  the  roots 
will  have  plenty  of  time  to 
grow  before  freezing. 

For  indoor  forcing  the 
bulbs  should  be  potted  up  in 
autumn  and  set  away  in  a 
cool  cellar  or  basement  for 
about  six  weeks,  until  the 
roots  are  well  developed  and 
the  crown  of  leaves  has 
broken  apart.  Then  they 
A  Dutch  Hyacinth  "lay  be  brought  to  a  Ughted 

room.  The  single  varieties 
are  very  attractive  when  grown  in  water  in  hyacinth 
glasses.  Small  bulbs  of  these  same  Dutch  Hyacinths  are 
sold  as  Miniature  or  Dutch  Roman  Hyacinths.  They  are 
cheaper  than  the  large  ones,  but  serve  very  well  for 


From  The  School  Garden  Book 

Picotee-Edge  Tulips 
105 


io6  CROP  PRODUCTION 

school  use,  especially  for  planting  in  small  paper  flower 
pots  or  for  crowding  together  in  broad  flower  bowls. 

The  Roman  Hyacinth  is  a  smaller  and  more  slender 
variety  than  the  Dutch  Hyacinth.  It  blossoms  earlier 
and  the  bulbs  are  cheaper.  MilUons  of  bulbs  which  are 
grown  chiefly  in  southern  France  are  forced  every  year 
by  the  florists.  It  is  one  of  the  best  plants  for  winter 
forcing  in  schools.  It  is  often  called  the  French  Roman 
Hyacinth,  and  sometimes  the  Italian  Roman  Hyacinth. 

Tulips  * 

The  Tulip  has  been  prized  in  Europe  as  a  decorative 
flower  for  nearly  five  hundred  years  and  in  Turkey  for 
a  much  longer  period.  It  was  introduced  into  Holland 
in  the  sixteenth  century  and  was  the  cause  of  the  most 
famous  flower  craze  that  has  been  known.  About  1634 
the  people  of  Europe  were  affected  by  what  was  called 
*'TuHpomania,"  and  for  a  few  years  speculated  inTuHp 
bulbs  to  such  an  extent  that  the  government  had  to 
stop  it.  There  are  eighty-three  recognized  species  of 
Tulips  and  an  almost  unlimited  number  of  varieties. 

TuHps  are  largely  planted  for  ornamental  beds  in  set 
designs  of  colors.  They  are  also  very  useful  for  border 
gardens  and  vast  numbers  are  forced  by  florists  for  the 
winter  and  spring  trade  in  cut  flowers.  The  single  varie- 
ties are  much  more  beautiful  than  the  double  ones. 

Narcissus  Group 

Many  attractive  species  of  spring-flowering  bulbs  are 
found  in  the  genus  Narcissus.  These  include  the  Daf- 
fodils, Jonquils,  ChaHce-flowers,  Poet's  Narcissus,  and 
other    well-known    forms.     The    single    Daffodils    are 


SPRING-FLOWERING   BULBS  107 

characterized  by  having  large  crowns  or  "trumpets"  of 
beautiful  tones  of  yellow.  In  the  Polyanthus  group 
there  are  several  blossoms  upon  one  stalk:  the  Paper 
White  is  one  of  the  best  of  these.  Another  is  the  Chinese 
Sacred  Lily,  which  is  grown  in  China,  the  bulbs  being 
imported  into  America  in  rush  baskets,  each  basket 
holding  sixty  of  the  large  bulbs.  The  flowers  develop 
readily  when  the  bulbs  are  placed  in  water. 

Crocuses 

The  Crocuses  are  among  the  earliest  of  the  spring- 
flowering  bulbs.  The  kinds  commonly  planted  blossom 
in  sheltered  corners  beside  snowbanks,  almost  as  soon 
as  the  latter  have  begun  to  melt.  The  bulbs  are  solid 
rather  than  scaly,  so  they  are  called  corms.  About 
seventy  species  of  Crocus  are  recognized  by  botanists, 
though  only  a  few  of  these  are  commonly  cultivated. 
Several  bloom  in  autumn  rather  than  in  spring,  but  the 
latter  are  much  more  satisfactory  in  cultivation  than 
the  former. 


SUMMER-FLOWERING  BULBS 

Planting  Tuberoses  {Spring  to  Autumn) 

A  few  tuberoses  should  be  planted  early  in  May  in 
the  border  garden  at  school.  They  will  probably  be  in 
blossom  when  school  opens  in  autumn. 

Growing  Gladioli  {Spring  to  Autumn) 

Gladiolus  bulbs  can  be  bought  from  the  seed-houses 
for  a  cent  each.  They  are  solid  corms  rather  than 
scaly  bulbs  and  each  has  a  thin  loose  outer  covering  as 
shown  in  the  picture  above. 

Plant  some  in  the  school  border  garden  and  encourage 
each  pupil  to  plant  a  few  in  his  home  garden. 

Take  up  the  bulbs  before  freezing  weather  in  autumn 
and  store  in  a  cool  cellar  where  they  will  not  freeze. 

Growing  Dahlias  {Spring  to  Autumn) 

DahHa  tubers  cost  httle  to  begin  with  and  multiply 
rapidly  from  year  to  year.  A  collection  of  good  varieties 
in  the  school  garden  may  be  gradually  distributed  to 
pupils  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  home  gardens. 

io8 


SUMMER-FLOWERING  BULBS 

For  the  sake  of  convenience  four  sorts  of  plants  not 
closely  related  may  be  arranged  under  this  heading: 
they  are  the  Tuberose,  the  Dahlia,  the  Gladiolus,  and  the 
Lily.  The  word  bulbs  as  here  used  must  be  taken  in 
a  very  broad  sense,  for  the  roots  we  plant  of  Tuberose 
and  DahUa  are  really  tubers  and  those  of  the  Gladiolus 
are  solid  corms,  the  Lilies  alone  being  scaly  bulbs. 

The  Tuberose 

More  than  four  centuries  have  passed  away  since  the 
Tuberose  was  first  grown  as  a  garden  flower.  Its  history 
during  this  long  period  is  most  interesting.  Originally  a 
native  of  Mexico,  it  found  its  way  to  India,  though  how  or 
when  is  not  known.  About  the  year  1500  it  was  taken 
to  Europe  and  cultivated  by  a  comparatively  few  flower 
lovers  for  many  years  before  it  was  generally  dispersed. 

These  early  Tuberoses  were  all  single  flowers,  but  about 
1780  a  double  form  was  developed  in  Holland.  Then 
for  nearly  a  hundred  years  these  flowers  increased  in 
popularity,  being  very  fashionable  in  America  just  after 
the  Civil  War.  In  1865  a  dwarf  variety.  Pearl,  was  intro- 
duced. It  soon  became  a  leading  sort.  At  present, 
however.  Tuberoses  are  little  used  here  except  for  gar- 
den culture  and  funeral  flowers.  Enormous  numbers  of 
the  bulbs  are  grown,  however,  in  North  CaroUna,  most 
of  them  being  exported  to  European  and  other  countries. 

In  all  but  the  most  northern  states  Tuberoses  are 


no  CROP  PRODUCTION 

easily  brought  into  blossom  in  summer  and  autumn,  if 
planted  in  loamy  soil  after  danger  from  frost  is  past. 
In  more  northern  regions  it  is  generally  desirable  to  start 
the  bulbs  in  hot-beds  or  greenhouses  in  order  to  get 
early  flowers. 

The  Gladiolus 

The  modern  Gladiolus  may  certainly  claim  to  be  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  garden  flowers.  The  graceful 
sword-like  leaves  and  the  long  spike  of  blossoms,  whose 
petals  display  such  exquisite  tints  and  shades,  combine 
to  make  a  distinctive  harmony  of  form  and  color.  A 
great  number  of  sorts  are  now  cultivated.  Most  of  them 
have  been  derived  from  a  comparatively  few  original 
species  that  were  chiefly  natives  of  South  Africa. 

The  bulbs  are  soKd  corms,  which  may  be  planted  in 
fairly  rich  loamy  soil,  almost  as  soon  as  the  ground 
can  be  worked  in  spring,  and  in  succession  every  two 
weeks  until  the  last  of  June.  The  flowers  open  finely 
if  the  stalks  are  cut  and  placed  in  water  as  soon  as  the 
lowest  blossom  appears.  New  bulbs  are  formed  above 
the  old  one  each  year.  These  should  be  dug  up  in 
autunrn  and  stored  in  a  cool,  dry,  frost-proof  cellar  until 
the  following  spring. 

Dahlias  and  Lilies 
The  DahHa  is  really  an  autumn  rather  than  a  summer- 
flowering  plant.  While  many  sorts  are  readily  brought 
into  blossom  in  July  or  August,  the  chief  show  is  likely 
to  be  exhibited  in  September.  The  plant  has  been  in 
general  cultivation  only  about  a  century,  although  in  its 
original  home  in  Mexico  it  has  been  known  as  a  garden 
flower  for  a  much  longer  period.     Several  distinct  types 


Spikes  or  Gladiolus  Flowers 
III 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


of  flowers  are  now  grown,  the  most  important  being  the 
large  double  Cactus  DahHas  and  the  Single  DahHas.    The 
Cactus  types  are  perhaps  the  most  beautiful. 
DahHa  roots  are  tubers  with  buds  at  the  upper  end. 

Single  tubers  planted 
when  danger  of  frost  is 
past  will  send  up  stalks 
that  will  blossom  late 
in  summer  or  early  in 
autumn.  The  roots 
must  be  dug  up  after 
the  leaves  are  killed 
by  the  frost,  and 
stored  for  the  winter 
in  a  dry,  cool,  frost- 
proof cellar. 

The  Lilies  have  al- 
ways been  noted  for 
their  grace  and  beauty. 
There  are  many  differ- 
ent kinds,  natives  of 
various  lands  as  well  as 
many  hybrid  sorts  de- 
veloped by  gardeners.  The  flower  is  arranged  in  sets  of 
threes,  the  three  outer  sepals  and  the  three  inner  petals  be- 
ing so  much  aUke  that  they  are  said  to  form  the  perianth. 
There  are  six  stamens  and  a  three-lobed  pistil.  The  scaly 
bulb  of  the  LiUes  should  be  planted  early  in  autumn. 
Most  of  them  thrive  best  in  a  light,  porous  soil  in  which 
surplus  water  quickly  drains  off.  The  White  Bermuda 
Lily  or  Easter  Lily  is  forced  in  greenhouses  in  vast  num- 
bers every  winter  for  spring  flowering. 


1 

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Cactus  Dahlias 


Ill 

FRUIT   CROPS 


"3 


114 


POMACEOUS  FRUITS:    THE  APPLE 

Exhibit  of  Apples 

Have  pupils  bring  in  as  many  varieties  of  apples  as 
they  can,  selecting  especially  those  kinds  whose  names 
are  known. 

Arrange  each  sort  on  a  separate  sheet  of  paper  and  add 
a  card  giving  the  name  of  the  variety.  It  is  well  to 
have  each  set  so  placed  as  to  show  all  sides,  that  the 
pupils  may  see  the  characteristics  of  each  variety. 

Invite  some  fruit  grower  to  look  over  the  names  to 
see  that  they  are  correct. 

After  the  pupils  have  had  a  chance  to  look  at  the 
exhibit  repeatedly,  say  for  a  week,  turn  the  name  cards 
down  and  try  each  member  of  the  class  on  a  recognition 
test.  Repeat  the  tests  until  the  varieties  are  easily 
recognized. 

Judging  Apples 

Let  each  pupil  copy  the  score  card  herewith  and  judge 
a  few  of  the  best  sets  of  apples.  Repeat  once  or  twice 
after  intervals  of  a  few  days. 


ii6 


CROP   PRODUCTION 


Uniformity  of  size 

.     .     20 

Typical  shape  for  variety     .     .     , 

•     •     15 

Typical  color  for  variety      .     .     . 

•     •     15 

Freedom  from  bruises      .... 

.     .     10 

Freedom  from  insect  injury      .     . 

.     .     20 

Freedom  from  fungous  injury  .     . 

.     .     20 

Varieties  of  Apples 

Ask  each  pupil  to  find  out  what  varieties  of  apples 
grew  best  in  his  orchard.  From  the  list  brought  in 
make  a  list  of  good  varieties  for  your  locality,  arranging 
them  under  these  headings: 

Summer  Autumn  Winter 


Insects 

What  leaf-eating  insects  affect  apple  trees  in  your 
locality?  Keep  some  of  them  under  observation  at  the 
school. 

What  kinds  of  bark-lice  or  scale  insects  can  you  find 
upon  apple  trees? 

If  you  do  not  know  the  name  send  specimens  to  your 
State  Experiment  Station. 

What  fruit-eating  insects  affect  apples  in  your  local- 
ity?    Bring  injured  apples  to  school. 

Mice  and  Rabbits 

Are  these  animals  injurious  to  young  trees  in  your 
neighborhood? 

What  means  of  preventing  their  injuries  have  you 
seen  tried? 


THE  APPLE 


117 


Fungous  Diseases 

Find  apples  affected  by  scab. 

Find  apple  leaves  affected  by  scab. 

Inquire  whether  apple  trees  sprayed  in  spring  or  early 
summer  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  lime-sulphur  solution 
are  much  affected  by  scab. 


APPLES 
PRODUCT/ON  m/899 
C£NSUSJ900 

iA/  THOUSANDS  OTaUSNOS 


THE  APPLE 

The  Apple  is  the  King  of  Fruits.  In  general  useful- 
ness, in  ease  of  production,  in  geographical  distribution, 
and  in  length  of  season  it  is  without  doubt  beyond  all 
rivalry.  It  would  be  difficult  to  determine  the  precise 
quantity  of  apples  grown  yearly  in  North  America,  but 
the  product  has  been  estimated  at  nearly  two  hundred 
million  bushels.  In  1907  more  than  one  and  a  half 
million  barrels  were  exported  from  the  United  States, 
chiefly  to  Great  Britain  and  Germany. 

The  development  of  the  Apple  has  been  coincident 
with  the  development  of  the  human  race.  Wild  Apple 
trees  grew  in  parts  of  Asia  and  Europe  where  man  began 
to  grow  in  knowledge  of  the  arts  that  led  to  civilization, 
and  the  use  of  apples  for  food  and  their  improvement 
by  cultivation  extends  far  back  of  recorded  history. 
This  wild  Apple  of  Europe  is  called  by  botanists  Pyrus 
Malus:  our  cultivated  apples,  as  distinguished  from 
Crab  apples,  practically  all  belong  to  this  botanical 
species.  Wherever  civilized  man  has  gone  to  make  his 
home  Apple  trees  have  followed,  so  that  the  species  has 
been  distributed  well  over  the  globe.  The  trees  have 
grown  under  almost  all  conceivable  conditions  and 
have  varied  in  infinite  ways.  Among  the  bilHons  of 
seedlings  that  have  sprung  up  a  very  few  have  borne 
fruit  that  appealed  to  man  as  of  especial  value.  These 
have  been  preserved  by  grafting  upon  other  seedlings, 
so  we  have  today  hundreds  of  improved  varieties,  giving 
118 


THE  APPLE  119 

us  a  wide  choice  of  fruits  —  early  or  late,  sweet  or  sour, 
large  or  small,  of  good  quality  or  of  poor,  red,  yellow, 
green,  or  white. 

Commercial  Apple  Regions 

While  the  Apple  is  grown  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
over  most  of  the  temperate  parts  of  North  America  there 
are  five  great  regions  where  the  fruit  is  a  staple  commer- 
cial product.  These  regions  have  been  given  the  follow- 
ing names  by  F.  A.  Waugh: 

1.  The  Lake  Ontario  Region:   parts  of  New  York, 

Michigan,  and  Ontario. 

2.  The  Mississippi  Valley  Region:  Illinois,  Missouri, 

and  parts  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Kansas, 
and  Arkansas. 

3.  The  Allegheny  Region:    parts  of  Penny  si  vania, 

Maryland,  West  Virginia,  Virginia,  Tennessee, 
and  North  CaroHna. 

4.  The  Nova  Scotia  Region:  part  of  Nova  Scotia. 

5.  The  Pacific  Coast  Region:  parts  of  Washington, 

Oregon,  and  California. 
Outside  of  these  commercial  Apple  regions  the  fruit 
is  grown  in  great  quantities  for  home  use  and  local  sale. 
The  trees  thrive  in  a  great  variety  of  soils  and  situations, 
and  amply  repay  the  sKght  care  required  to  keep  them 
in  bearing  condition.  While  some  soils  are  better  than 
others,  the  trees  will  grow  almost  as  well  on  any  soil 
that  is  not  waterlogged,  a  deep,  rich,  well-drained  loam 
being  most  desirable.  Clean,  vigorous,  two-year-old 
trees  with  well-formed  heads  should  be  chosen  for  plant- 
ing, and  set  at  distances  of  forty  feet  apart  each  way. 
The  soil  should  be  well  prepared  before  planting  and 


I20  CROP  PRODUCTION 

kept  in  good  condition  afterwards.  There  is  little  use 
in  setting  apple  trees  in  small  holes  in  grasslands  and 
then  leaving  them  to  fight  for  Hfe  unaided.  On  a  small 
scale  especially  for  the  home  orchards,  young  trees  can 
be  kept  thrifty  by  heavy  mulching,  being  sure  to  band 
the  trees  with  wire  netting  to  prevent  injury  to  the  bark 
by  the  mice  that  are  likely  to  seek  shelter  under  the  mulch. 
In  orchard  practice,  however,  tillage  early  in  the  season 
followed  by  a  cover  crop  later  is  the  best  procedure, 
except  in  hill  regions. 

Wild  Apples 
In  many  regions  where  Apples  have  been  grown  for 
generations  wild  or  native  Apple  trees  have  sprung  up. 
As  a  rule  these  bear  natural  fruit  of  little  value,  but 
such  trees  are  readily  top-grafted  to  desirable  varieties. 
If  the  trees  are  small  they  can  be  made  over  by  insert- 
ing a  very  few  scions,  but  if  large  more  are  needed.  In 
either  case  the  work  is  well  repaid  by  the  increase  of 
the  crop  in  future  years. 

Varieties 

About  one  thousand  varieties  of  Apples  are  known 
in  North  America.  Less  than  a  score  of  these  form  the 
bulk  of  the  commercial  product,  but  many  others  have 
great  value  in  special  locaHties  and  for  home  use.  In 
selecting  varieties  the  experience  of  fruit  growers  in 
one's  own  neighborhood  is  the  most  valuable  guide, 
although  it  is  always  interesting  to  experiment  in  a  small 
way  with  sorts  untried  in  the  locality. 

Success  in  commercial  Apple  culture  lies  in  choosing 
the  right  location  and  varieties,  giving  good  tillage, 
fertilizing  properly,   taking   care   to   furnish  plenty  of 


THE   APPLE 


phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  but  not  too  much  nitrogen, 
pruning  correctly,  spraying  at  the  proper  times  and 
with  the  proper  mixtures,  harvesting  and  packing  care- 
fully, and  selling  to  best  advantage.  Each  of  these 
operations  requires  knowledge  and  skill  of  a  high  order. 


Sprayed:  Poor  Apples  at  the  Right 
Results  of  a  Spraying  Test 

Apple  Enemies 

Many   leaf-eating   caterpillars   attack   apple   foliage. 

The  Canker-worms  are  among  the  most  destructive  of 

these  pests.     The  eggs  of  the  Fall  Canker-worm  are 

laid  in  autumn  and  remain  unhatched  through  the  winter. 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


The  eggs  of  the  Spring  Canker-worm  are  laid  in  spring. 
The  larvae  of  both  species  hatch  as  the  buds  are  opening 
and  attack  the  young  leaves,  often  doing  great  damage. 
They  are  looping  caterpillars  or  measuring  worms. 
When  fully  grown  they,  change  to  pupae  at  or  near  the 
soil  surface.  The  female  moths  are  wingless.  Spray- 
ing with  arsenate  of  lead  before  the  blossoms  open  and 
after  the  petals  fall  will  destroy  these  pests. 

In  some  parts  of 
New  England  the 
Brown-tail  Moth  and 
the  Gipsy  Moth  are 
exceedingly  destruc- 
tive to  apple  orchards. 
In  New  York  and 
other  regions  the 
Bud-moth  Caterpil- 
lars and  Case-bearers 
are  injurious.  In 
most  eastern  and  mid- 
dle western  states  the 
Apple  Tent-caterpil- 
lar is  often  destructive.  These  pests  may  all  be 
controlled  by  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead. 


Enemies  of  the  Fruit 


The  Codling  Moth  or  Apple  Worm  is  one  of  the  most 
generally  injurious  insects  affecting  apple  fruits.  The 
eggs  are  laid  by  a  small  moth,  usually  upon  the  green 
fruit  or  the  leaves.  They  hatch  into  whitish  worms  that 
burrow  into  the  young  apple  and  feed  upon  the  pulp 


THE  APPLE  123 

for  several  weeks.  When  they  are  full  grown  in  this 
larval  state  they  leave  the  apple  and  each  spins  a 
cocoon  under  such  shelter  of  loose  bark  as  it  can  find. 
Then  it  changes  to  a  pupa,  to  change  again  in  about  two 
weeks  to  a  moth.  There  are  usually  two  broods  each 
year,  the  insects  passing  the  winter  as  larvae  within  the 
cocoons. 


Four  Apples  Injured  by  Curculios:  One  Uninjured 

The  larvae  of  the  Codling  Moth  may  be  killed  to  a 
great  extent  by  spraying  the  trees  with  arsenate  of  lead 
just  after  the  petals  fall,  when  the  calyx  cups  are  still 
open.  It  is  desirable  to  force  the  poison  into  the  cups 
by  using  high-pressure  pumps  that  give  a  forceful  spray. 
One  or  two  later  sprayings  are  helpful,  but  not  necessary. 

The  Plum  Curcuho  often  attacks  apples.  The  female 
beetles  cut  crescent-shaped  marks  in  the  skin  of  the 
young  fruit  in  order  to  deposit  their  eggs.  The  larvae 
are  commonly  unable  to  develop  in  the  apple,  but  the 
injury  done  by  the  beetle  causes  the  fruit  to  be  gnarly 
and  one-sided.     Fortunately  the  poison  appUed  to  kill 


124  CROP   PRODUCTION 

the  Codling  Moth  larvae  is  also  largely  effective  against 

the  adult  curculios. 
The  Apple  Maggot  or  Railroad  Worm  is  a  serious  pest 

in  many  regions.  A  small  fly  lays  eggs  beneath  the 
skin  of  young  apples  in  summer. 
The  eggs  hatch  into  footless  mag- 
gots that  burrow  through  the  pulp. 
The  injured  fruits  finally  fall  and 
the  maggots  leave  them  to  enter 
the  soil.  Here  they  pupate  and 
remain  until  the  following  season, 
when  they  emerge  as  flies.  The 
CHANNELS  OF  usual  sprayiug   with    arsenate   of 

APPLE     r-lAGGOT  . 

lead  is  helpful  against  the  pest, 
as  is  the  picking  up  of  windfalls  or  pasturing  with 
stock  that  eats  them. 

Scale  Insects 

Three  species  of  Scale  Insects  or  Bark-lice  commonly 
attack  apple  trees.  The  San  Jose  Scale  is  most  destruc- 
tive; the  Oyster-shell  Scale  next  and  the  Scurfy  Scale 
next.  The  Oyster-shell  Scale  is  easily  recognized 
through  its  resemblance  to  miniature  oyster  shells.  The 
eggs  beneath  the  scales  in  winter  may  easily  be  seen  even 
with  the  unaided  eye.  The  Scurfy  Scale  occurs  as  small 
whitish  patches  scattered  over  the  bark.  All  these 
scales  are  killed  by  the  thorough  appHcation  of  the 
lime-sulphur  spray  to  the  leafless  trees. 

Apple  trees,  especially  when  young,  often  suffer  from 
the  attacks  of  Rabbits  and  Meadow-mice.  These  pests 
feed  upon  the  bark  of  the  trunk  near  the  ground,  fre- 
quently girdhng  it  so  completely  that  the  tree  dies. 


THE  APPLE 


125 


Painting  with  white  lead  and  pure  raw  linseed  oil,  smear- 
ing the  bark  with  the  hme-sulphur  wash,  or  covering  it 
with  wire  netting  are  efficient 
means  of  preventing  such 
damage. 

Apple  Scab 

Apple  Scab  is  the  most  im- 
portant fungous  disease  attack- 
ing this  crop.  It  is  due  to  a 
parasitic  fungus  that  develops 
upon  both  leaves  and  fruit,  caus- 
ing brownish  discolorations  on 
the  former  and  black,  woody 
patches  on  the  latter.  It  causes 
the  loss  of  milUons  of  dollars 
worth  of  apples  every  year.  It 
can  be  prevented  by  means  of 
dilute  Hme-sulphur  spray,  which  is  preferred  to  Bordeaux 
mixture  because  it  causes  no  damage  to  the  fruit. 


Ij^^m;'^ 

^^^|| 

^3»y  V  ' 

^^^; 

BEpif 

Bk  £.'*■■' 

WfBpiJi '  %  t 

^^ij 

il^al 

Ik^w 

I^BS^'h^' 

B^^ii 

4^\  'flHH 

HiKi' 

Oyster-Shell  Scale 


POMACEOUS  FRUITS:    THE  PEAR 

Varieties 

Teacher  and  pupils  should  arrange  a  little  exhibit  of 
varieties  of  pears.  Get  the  real  fruit  whenever  possible, 
helping  out  with  wax  models  and  colored  pictures,  if 
available. 

Learn  what  varieties  are  grown  locally  and  make  Hsts 
under  these  headings: 

Summer  Autumn  Winter 


Pear  Blight 

Examine  pear  trees  for  blighted  branches.  On  neg- 
lected trees  these  are  likely  to  be  found  at  any  season. 
Even  in  winter  such  branches  may  be  known  by  the 
dead  leaves  still  hanging  to  the  twigs. 

Cut  off  and  burn  all  such  diseased  branches. 

Fungous  Diseases 

Keep  watch  for  pear  leaf-blight  on  leaves  and  fruits, 
especially  late  in  spring  and  early  in  summer. 

Find  spots  due  to  scab  upon  pears.     Compare  its 
appearance  with  apple  scab. 
126 


THE   PEAR 


127 


Inquire  whether  pear  trees  sprayed  with  fungicides  are 
injured  by  these  diseases  —  leaf -blight  and  pear  scab. 

Insect  Enemies 

Look  for  pear  leaves  which  have  had  the  surface 
eaten  off,  leaving  the  network  of  veins  to  show.  In 
summer  the  little  pear  slugs  that  do  the  damage  are 
likely  to  be  found. 

See  if  you  can  find  pears  showing  the  crescent  marks 
of  the  curcuho ;  or  those  infested  by  codling  moth  larvae. 

Look  for  bark-lice  or  scale  insects  on  pear  trees. 


THE  PEAR 

The  Pear  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  earliest 
fruits  cultivated  by  man.  Ihe  wild  species,  called  Pyrus 
communis,  is  native  to  Asia  and  Europe,  and  its  fruit, 
or  that  of  cultivated  varieties  derived  from  it,  has  been 
prized  since  long  before  the  dawn  of  recorded  history. 
The  great  majority  of  the  cultivated  varieties  now  grown 
in  Europe  and  America  are  direct  descendants  of  this 
species. 

Another  species  of  Wild  Pear,  called  Pyrus  Sinensis,  is 
native  to  China,  whence  it  has  been  widely  distributed 
over  the  earth.  It  is  known  as  the  Sand  Pear,  Chinese 
Pear,  and  Japanese  Pear.  Its  fruit  is  of  Httle  value  as 
compared  with  the  other  type,  but  the  tree  is  of  a  decided 
ornamental  appearance  and  has  been  cultivated  for 
landscape  garden  purposes.  During  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury Peter  Kieffer,  a  Philadelphia  nurseryman,  origi- 
nated a  hybrid  between  this  Sand  Pear  and  the  European 
Pear  which  was  introduced  as  the  Kieffer  and  proved 
a  very  valuable  sort  for  commercial  growers.  Another 
valuable  hybrid  of  the  same  sort  has  been  introduced 
since  as  the  Leconte  Pear. 

So  it  happens  that  the  great  majority  of  our  cultivated 
varieties  of  Pears  belong  to  the  European  species,  while 
a  very  few  are  hybrids  between  that  species  and  the 
Sand  Pear.  The  fruit  of  the  former  is  of  better  quahty, 
but  the  trees  of  the  hybrids  are  more  vigorous  and  able 
128 


THE   PEAR  129 

to  stand  more  trying  climates.  The  hybrids  have  made 
commercial  pear  growing  possible  in  southern  regions 
where  it  had  been  impracticable  with  the  older  sorts. 

Culture  and  Varieties 

There  is  no  such  demand  for  Pears  as  there  is  for 
apples,  and  the  commercial  production  of  the  former  is 
of  far  less  importance  than  that  of  the  latter.  But  in 
certain  regions  Pears  are  grown  on  a  large  scale  with 
profit,  and  in  most  places  where  the  fruit  trees  thrive 
they  should  form  an  important  feature  of  all  home 
orchards.  Pears  are  valuable  for  dessert  and  preserves, 
and  by  growing  several  varieties  the  season  can  be 
extended  from  midsummer  to  midwinter. 

Pear  trees  thrive  and  live  longest  on  a  moderately 
rich  clay  soil  that  induces  a  steady  but  not  too  thrifty 
growth.  Two-year-old  trees  are  desirable  for  planting, 
at  distances  of  twenty  feet  each  way.  The  young  trees 
should  be  so  pruned  as  to  induce  a  low  spreading  top 
that  will  protect  the  trunk  from  sun-scald.  Wood  ashes 
and  other  fertilizers  with  little  nitrogen  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  those  rich  in  nitrogen,  as  this  element  induces 
a  rapid  soft-wooded  growth  that  is  commonly  thought 
to  render  the  branches  more  hable  to  the  attack  of  Pear 
Blight  than  branches  having  a  slow,  hard-wooded 
growth. 

Most  varieties  of  Pears  when  grown  as  standards 
come  into  bearing  slowly,  a  truth  expressed  in  the  old 
couplet 

Plant  pears 
For  your  heirs. 

But  when  Pears  are  budded  on  quince  stocks  they  are 


I30  CROP   PRODUCTION 

dwarfed  and  come  into  bearing  earlier.  Dwarf  pears 
are  particularly  desirable  for  planting  in  the  home 
grounds  where  the  space  is  limited.  They  have  to  be 
pruned  back  every  year  after  they  have  become  well 
estabHshed,  and  the  fruit  should  be  thinned  radically 
when  they  first  begin  to  bear. 

Pollination  and  Picking 

Many  a  man  has  planted  one  or  two  Pear  trees,  or 
several  of  one  variety,  and  has  seen  them  grow  and 
blossom  but  bear  no  fruit.  So  he  has  concluded  that 
Pears  were  not  adapted  to  his  locality,  when  the  trouble 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  flowers  of  most  Pears,  like 
those  of  many  plums,  are  self-sterile  to  their  own  variety. 
Consequently  it  is  necessary  to  plant  near  together  trees 
of  different  sorts  that  blossom  at  the  same  time  so  that 
the  bees  and  other  insects  may  cross-p'ollenize  the 
flowers.  This  will  lead  to  the  fertilization  of  the  ovules 
and  the  setting  of  an  abundant  crop  of  fruit. 

A  day's  changes  in  one  of  the  flowers  are  repre- 
sented in  the  drawings  reproduced  on  page  126. 

The  quality  of  most  fruits  is  best  when  they  ripen 
upon  the  tree,  but  in  the  case  of  the  Pear  the  best  quality 
is  obtained  when  the  green  fruit  is  picked  as  it  reaches 
its  full  size  and  is  carefully  stored  in  a  cool  place  to 
ripen.  In  the  case  of  the  winter  varieties  it  is  worth 
while  to  wrap  each  fruit  in  paper  and  store  it  carefully 
in  a  cool  cellar  where  the  temperature  varies  little. 

Pear  Blight 

Pear  trees  are  subject  to  attack  by  many  pests:  bac- 
teria, fungi,  insects,  mice,  and  rabbits  all  find  some  part 


THE   PEAR  131 

of  the  tree  to  their  liking.  The  most  destructive  of  these 
enemies  are  the  tiny  bacterial  germs  that  cause  the 
dreaded  Fire  BHght  which  ];ias  done  so  much  damage 
to  Pear  trees  that  it  has  long  been  called  Pear  Blight, 
though  it  also  affects  apples,  quinces,  and  various  other 
trees.  This  commonly  shows  its  presence  by  the  sudden 
blackening  of  leaves  or  blossoms  or  both,  the  whole  twig 
appearing  as  if  scorched  by  fire.  It  affects  also  the 
fruit  and  the  bark. 

On  the  bark  of  the  trunk  and  larger  branches  Pear 
BHght  produces  dead  cankered  spots,  around  the  mar- 
gins of  which  the  germs  often  develop  in  the  exuding 
sap  in  enormous  numbers.  Wasps  and  flies  are  at-  . 
tracted  to  this  sap;  they  get  the  germs  upon  their 
mouth-parts  and  feet  so  that  when  they  visit  the  flowers 
they  leave  some  germs  upon  the  sticky  stigma  or  in  the 
liquid  nectar  in  the  nectar  cup.  Either  situation  is 
favorable  to  the  increase  of  the  blight  bacteria;  they 
multiply  enormously  and  go  down  from  the  blossom  to 
the  branch,  destroying  the  live  tissues  as  they  go. 

When  the  BHght  germs  have  thus  begun  to  develop 
in  some  blossoms  they  are  very  likely  to  be  carried  to 
others  by  the  bees  that  visit  the  flowers.  So  these 
insects  may  serve  to  spread  infection  while  engaged  in 
their  useful  work  of  pollen  distribution.  Plant  lice  or 
other  sucking  insects  that  develop  upon  a  blighting  twig 
or  leaf  may  also  carry  the  germs  when  they  move  to  new 
feeding  places.  Even  man  may  unwittingly  spread  the 
disease  with  his  pruning  tools,  unless  he  is  careful  to 
disinfect  them  after  using  them  on  diseased  branches. 

The  prompt  cutting  and  burning  of  all  diseased  parts, 
with  weekly  inspections  during  May,  June,  and  July,  and 


132  CROP  PRODUCTION 

the  disinfection  of  all  wounds  by  a  dilute  solution  of 
formalin  or  corrosive  sublimate  are  the  only  known 
remedial  measures.  The  early  destruction  of  suckers 
and  water-sprouts  on  trunk  and  large  branches  is  desir- 
able to  prevent  the  disease  from  estabHshing  cankers  on 
the  main  part  of  the  tree. 

Fungous  Diseases 

The  Pear  Leaf-blight  is  a  disease  entirely  distinct 
from  the  Pear  Blight.  It  is  confined  to  leaf  and  fruit  and 
does  not  attack  the  twigs  or  bark.  It  is  caused  by  a 
fungus  that  infests  the  young  leaves  in  spring,  producing 
small  reddish  spots  on  the  upper  surface.  These  spots 
grow  larger  with  the  development  of  the  fungus,  some- 
times running  together  to  form  large  blotches.  Badly 
infested  leaves  drop  off,  so  the  tree  may  be  completely 
defohated.  When  the  fruit  is  attacked  it  commonly 
breaks  open  in  a  way  suggestive  of  the  effect  of  Pear 
Scab.  The  disease  may  be  controlled  by  spraying  with 
fungicides. 

Various  other  fungous  diseases  trouble  the  pear  as  a 
rule  locally,  though  one,  the  Pear  Scab,  is  widely  distrib- 
uted. In  character  and  life-history  this  is  much  like 
the  apple  scab  and  may  be  prevented  in  a  similar  way. 
Most  diseases  of  ^apples  are  Hable  to  appear  upon  Pears, 
but  fortunately  proper  spraying  checks  their  injuries 
upon  both  fruits. 


Much   Maqnified 


kn^  i  /^ 


:4  1*&    '"'  f^M 


Larva 


San  Jose  Scale 


Infested  Pear  Twjg 

Maqnified 


134  CROP  PRODUCTION 

Insect  Enemies 

The  Pear  is  also  subject  to  attack  by  many  insect 
pests;  the  CodHng  Moth,  the  Plum  Curculio,  and  the  San 
Jose  Scale  have  life-histories  on  pears  very  similar  to 
those  upon  apples.  Various  borers  and  bark-beetles 
also  attack  pear  trees  as  they  do  apple  trees.  -The  leaves 
are  fed  upon  by  the  Pear  Slug,  a  small  two-brooded 
insect  that  is  readily  killed  by  spraying  with  arsenates. 

The  Pear  Psylla  is  a  small  insect  that  is  sometimes 
locally  injurious.  It  is  a  tiny  creature,  related  to  the 
aphides.  It  winters  over  as  an  adult,  often  in  the  shelter 
of  loose  bark.  In  early  spring  the  female  Psyllas  lay 
their  eggs  on  or  near  the  buds  and  these  eggs  hatch  into 
little  Psyllas  that  suck  the  sap  from  the  stalks  of  the 
developing  leaves.  These  become  full  grown  in  early 
summer  and  lay  eggs  for  a  second  brood,  which  in  turn 
is  followed  by  other  summer  broods,  throughout  the 
season.  Spraying  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  fall  with 
dilute  kerosene  emulsion  or  a  solution  of  whale-oil  soap 
is  an  effective  remedy. 

Vertebrate  Enemies 
Meadow-mice  seem  particularly  fond  of  the  bark  of 
young  pear  trees.  Under  the  protection  of  the  snow 
they  frequently  strip  off  practically  all  the  bark  for  a 
foot  or  two  above  the  ground.  The  best  way  to  prevent 
such  damage  is  to  enclose  the  trunk  in  wire  netting  of  a 
mesh  small  enough  to  prevent  the  gnawing  or  else  to 
paint  the  trunk  with  white  lead  and  raw  linseed  oil. 
Injury  by  rabbits  will  also  be  prevented  by  either  method, 
if  the  protection  extends  far  enough  up  the  trunk. 


STONE   FRUITS:     THE   PEACH 
Varieties 

If  the  peach  is  grown  locally  learn  what  varieties 
succeed  best. 

If  the  peach  is  not  grown  locally  learn  whether  a  few 
trees  have  not  succeeded  in  past  years.  In  many  places 
peaches  could  be  grown  for  home  use  where  none  are 
now  planted. 

Peach  Diseases 

Learn  whether  any  of  these  diseases  are  destructive 
to  peaches  locally : 

Peach  Yellows  Peach  Leaf-curl 

Peach  Rosette  Brown  Rot 

Inquire  whether  orchards  sprayed  with  lime-sulphur 
solution  are  badly  injured  by  leaf-curl  and  brown  rot. 

Find  mummied  peaches  on  the  trees.  Bring  some  to 
school  and  place  under  an  inverted  tumbler  on  a  pane 
of  glass.  Keep  moist  and  see  the  development  of  the 
spores  in  velvety  masses. 

Each  pupil  should  remove  such  mummied  peaches  on 
trees  at  home. 

135 


136 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


Insect  Enemies 

Examine  peach  trees  for  signs  of  borers.  Dig  out  all 
that  can  be  found. 

Examine  the  bark  to  see  if  any  scale  insects  are  present. 

After  the  fruit  sets  examine  the  young  peaches  for  the 
crescent  marks  of  the  plum  curcuHo.  If  they  are  abun- 
dant it  may  be  advisable  to  jar  the  trees  and  catch  the 
curculios  on  sheets  spread  beneath. 


THE  PEACH 

By  general  consent  the  Peach  ranks  as  the  most  lus- 
cious of  tree  fruits.  Like  the  strawberry  —  the  most 
luscious  of  small  fruits  —  its  season  is  comparatively 
short  and  the  melting  quality  of  its  flesh  prevents  it 
from  being  kept  long,  even  in  cold  storage.  The  fact 
that  areas  adapted  to  Peach  growing  are  restricted  on 
account  of  the  tenderness  of  bud  and  tree  to  frost  and 
cold  also  helps  to  make  the  fruit  a  luxury  for  the  summer 
season,  though  fortunately  the  fruit  is  easily  preserved 
and  forms  an  important  feature  of  the  canned  fruit 
industry. 

While  five  rather  distinct  types  of  Peaches  are  grown 
in  North  America,  most  if  not  all  of  them  are  believed 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  Peach  of  history  —  a  tree 
grown  from  time  immemorial  in  Persia,  and  probably 
existing  originally  as  a  wild  species  in  China,  Asia,  or 
other  regions.  Most  of  the  varieties  in  the  United 
States  are  of  the  Persian  type  grown  in  Europe  for 
centuries,  but  a  few  like  the  pointed  Honey  Peach  and 
the  fiat  Peen-to  Peach,  which  are  grown  locally  in  the 
south,  have  come  directly  from  China  in  recent  years. 
Special  interest  attaches  to  the  Cobler  and  some  other 
varieties  grown  commonly  in  the  south:  these  are  de- 
rived from  wild  peach  trees  found  when  the  southwestern 
states  were  settled  by  the  colonists  from  the  eastern 
states.  These  wild  trees  are  believed  to  have  originated 
137 


138  CROP  PRODUCTION 

from  European  peach  trees  brought  to  Mexico  or  other 
regions  on  the  Pacific  coast,  by  the  Spaniards  at  the 
time  of  their  early  invasions,  several  centuries  ago. 

Site  and  Culture 

The  Peach  is  a  comparatively  short-lived  tree,  but  it 
is  easily  propagated  and  begins  to  bear  early.  It  is 
grown  from  seed,  the  little  seedHngs  being  budded  within 
a  year  of  their  sprouting  and  the  trees  being  planted  in 
their  permanent  situation  within  a  year  of  the  time  they 
are  budded.  Light  sandy  loams  are  the  best  soils  for 
growing  peaches,  but  great  care  must  also  be  taken  in 
the  selection  of  the  site.  Peaches  are  subject  to  winter 
killing  of  trees  and  fruit  buds  by  too  low  temperatures 
and  the  buds  and  blossoms  are  subject  to  destruction  by 
frosts.  Consequently  the  site  must  be  one  where  the 
winter  temperature  is  not  too  severe  and  yet  where  the 
spring  warmth  will  not  force  the  trees  into  blossom  so 
early  that  the  opening  buds  will  be  blighted  by  frost. 

The  areas  in  the  United  States  especially  favorable  to 
peach  growing  are  limited  by  these  requirements.  Near 
great  lakes  and  sounds  the  winter  climate  is  tempered 
by  the  water,  so  that  the  winter  is  not  so  cold  nor  the 
summer  so  hot,  while  spring  comes  on  with  moderation. 
So  it  is  natural  that  the  Peach  should  flourish  in  such 
regions,  and  we  find  great  Peach  orchards  in  southern 
Michigan,  northern  Ohio,  western  New  York,  in  Dela- 
ware, Connecticut,  and  along  the  coast  southward. 

In  southern  regions  the  winter  climate  is  not  severe, 
and  in  elevations  of  a  thousand  feet  or  more  the  spring 
comes  more  slowly  then  at  sea  level.  So  we  find  more 
Peach  orchards  flourishing  in  the  higher  parts  of  Georgia, 


THE   PEACH  139 

Alabama,  and  the  Carolinas.  In  many  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia, Peaches  are  also  grown  on  a  large  scale,  much  of 
the  fruit  being  preserved  by  drying.. 

Peach  Pests 

The  Peach  is  a  tender  tree:  it  grows  rapidly  and  its 
wood,  bark,  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit  are  all  delicate  in 
structure  as  compared  with  most  other  fruit  trees.  So 
it  is  not  strange  that  it  is  subject  to  injury  from  many 
enemies,  especially  parasitic  fungi  and  insects  of  several 
kinds.  The  precise  causes  of  two  of  the  most  destructive 
diseases,  however,  have  yet  to  be  determined.  Peach 
Yellows  has  caused  the  destruction  of  numberless  or- 
chards, and  the  Peach  Rosette  in  certain  southern  states 
has  been  locally  injurious.  Both  are  known  to  be  con- 
tagious, but  the  organisms  producing  them  have  not  yet 
been  isolated. 

Peach  trees  affected  by  the  Yellows  disease  send  out 
slender  yellowish  shoots  very  early  in  spring,  these  some- 
times taking  on  a  brush-like  appearance  because  so  many 
grow  in  a  cluster.  Later  in  the  season  the  fruit  ripens 
prematurely,  is  of  inferior  quality,  and  bears  charac- 
teristic red  spots  on  its  surface,  the  red  marking  extending 
into  the  flesh.  While  only  a  branch  or  two  may  be 
affected  at  first,  the  disease  spreads  until  it  kills  the 
whole  tree.  No  remedy  is  known,  the  only  treatment 
being  to  remove  and  burn  the  tree,  root  and  branch,  and 
set  a  new  one  in  its  place.  Fortunately  the  disease  does 
not  inoculate  the  soil  so  that  the  new  tree  is  in  no  greater 
danger  from  Yellows  than  the  trees  set  in  other  places 
in  the  neighborhood. 

Peach  Rosette  appears  to  be  a  sort  of  acute  form  of 


I40  CROP  PRODUCTION 

the  Yellows  disease.  The  whole  tree  may  seem  to  be 
affected  suddenly,  sending  out  rosettes  of  short  and 
slender  twigs  from  all  its  branches,  each  twig  being 
crowded  with  small  yellowish  leaves.  Such  trees  soon 
die,  and  the  only  thing  for  the  orchardist  to  do  is  to  cut 
and  burn  them  promptly. 

Fungous  Diseases 

The  Peach  Leaf-curl  is  a  vexatious  disease  that  often 
causes  the  defoliation  of  the  trees  in  spring.  The  young 
leaves  become  strangely  curled  and  swollen  before  they 
fall  off.  The  crop  for  the  season  is  ruined  in  cases  of 
severe  attack.  The  disease  is  local  as  a  rule  and  rather 
uncertain  in  its  appearance,  but  is  especially  destructive 
during  wet  springs.  Fortunately  this  Curl  can  be  easily 
prevented  by  thorough  spraying  with  lime-sulphur  wash 
or  Bordeaux  mixture  during  the  dormant  season  and 
before  the  buds  swell.  The  Ume-sulphur  spray  has 
the  additional  advantage  that  it  destroys  the  San  Jose 
Scale. 

The  Brown  Rot  of  Stone  Fruits  has  been  the  most 
generally  destructive  disease  in  Peach  orchards.  The 
annual  loss  on  this  fruit  alone  caused  by  this  fungus  has 
been  estimated  at  three  million  dollars.  In  addition  to 
the  damage  done  the  fruit  on  the  tree  and  after  packing, 
the  blossoms  are  destroyed,  especially  during  wet  springs. 
The  removal  of  the  mummied  peaches  upon  and  beneath 
the  trees  and  spraying  with  dilute  lime-sulphur  washes 
are  effective  remedial  measures. 

Many  other  fungous  diseases  affect  the  Peach.  The 
Peach  Scab  is  a  serious  and  widespread  malady  of  the 


THE   PEACH 


141 


fruit,  shown  by  black  specks  or  blotches  upon  the  skin, 
the  injury  extending  to  the  adjacent  part  of  the  fruit. 
Several  other  fungi  attack  the  leaves,  causing  shot-like 
holes  or  other  injurious  effects.  The  bark  is  attacked 
by  others  and  the  roots  commonly  suffer  from  the  vexa- 
tious Crown  Galls  that  attack  so  many  plants.  Special 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  plant  any  trees  showing  the 
characteristic  galls  of  this  disease. 

Insect  Enemies 


Peach  trees  are  almost  as  subject  to  insect  attack  as 
they  are  to  those  of  parasitic  fungi.  Root,  trunk,  bark, 
twig,  leaf,  and  fruit  —  each  is  infested 
by  one  or  more  insects.  The  Peach- 
tree  Borer  is  probably  the  most  gen- 
erally destructive  of  these  pests.  The 
adult  insect  is  a  small  clear-winged 
moth  that  deposits  eggs  on  the  trunk 
near  the  ground.  The  eggs  hatch 
into  whitish  larvae  that  burrow  be- 
neath the  bark,  often  going  toward  the 
roots.  They  cause  a  gummy  exuda- 
tion at  the  surface  of  the  holes  which 
is  a  sign  of  their  presence.  After  near- 
ly a  year  of  growth  they  change  to 
pupae,  to  change  again  a  little  later  into  moths.  The 
trees  should  be  carefully  examined  in  early  summer 
and  in  autumn  and  all  borers  dug  out. 

The  San  Jose  Scale  is  especially  destructive  to  Peach 
trees.  The  infested  bark  becomes  covered  with  a 
grayish  crust  of  scales,  the  insects  multiplying  so  rapidly 


INTURECi    BV 
CURCUHO 


142 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


as  soon  to  kill  the  tree.  Winter  spraying  with  the  lime- 
sulphur  wash  will  destroy  the  pests,  although  when  trees 
are  badly  infested  it  is  generally  necessary  to  prune  back 
severely  before  the  spray  is  appHed. 

Peach  fruits  are  commonly  attacked  by  the  Plum 
Curculio.  When  the  insects  are  abundant  it  is  necessary 
to  spray  or  to  resort  to  jarring  on  sheets  or  CurcuHo 
catchers  to  destroy  them.  Peach  foliage  is  very  sensi- 
tive to  injury  from  arsenical  poisons,  but  is  not  injured 
by  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead.  The  Department 
of  Agriculture  has  demonstrated  that  the  Peach  Scab, 
Fruit  Rot,  and  CurcuHo  may  all  be  controlled  by  three 
sprayings  with  two  pounds  arsenate  of  lead  to  fifty 
gallons  self-boiled  Hme-sulphur  wash,  first  when  shucks 
are  falHng  from  young  fruits;  second  two  or  three 
weeks  later;  third  one  month  before  fruit  ripens,  with- 
out lead  arsenate  in  the  latter  case. 


STONE  FRUITS:   THE  PLUMS 

Varieties 

Learn  what  varieties  of  plums  are  grown  locally. 
Arrange  the  variety  names  under  these  headings  as  far 
as  possible: 

DoMESTiCAS  Japanese  American  Hybrids 


Time  of  Blossoming 

Learn  when  all  the  different  varieties  of  plums  grown 
locally  blossom.  Keep  a  record  of  the  varieties  that 
blossom  at  the  same  time,  as  these  are  generally  cross- 
poUenized  by  bees  and  so  should  be  planted  near 
together. 

Fungous  Diseases 

Find  black  knots  on  plums,  and  wild  and  cultivated 
cherries.  Burn  up  all  that  can  be  seen  and  make  it  the 
business  of  the  school  to  help  exterminate  this  disease  in 
the  district. 

143 


144 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


Find  on  the  trees  dried  plums  mummied  by  brown 
rot.  Place  one  under  a  tumbler  inverted  on  a  pane  of 
glass.  Add  a  little  water  and  see  the  velvety  spores 
that  are  likely  to  develop. 

Pick  ofif  all  the  mummied  plums  on  the  trees  and  rake 
up  those  under  the  trees.     Burn. 

Plum  Curculio 

Find  green  plums  that  show  the  crescent  marks  of 
the  curculio. 

Cut  open  fallen  plums  to  find  the  curculio  larvae. 

Place  fallen  plums  in  a  jar  with  a  few  inches  of  soil  in 
the  bottom.     See  if  you  can  find  pupae  in  the  soil  later. 

Jar  plum  branches  over  a  sheet  and  catch  some  of  the 
adult  curculios. 


THE  PLUMS 

The  Plum  is  justly  esteemed  one  of  the  most  delicious 
of  fruits.  When  fresh  it  is  excellent  for  eating  raw,  for 
sauce,  and  for  jelly.  It  is  easily  canned  and  when  dried 
the  prunes  made  from  certain  plums  form  one  of  the  most 
important  of  fruit  products.  So  many  types  of  plums 
exist  that  they  can  be  grown  in  almost  any  region  and 
the  fruit  ripens  over  a  very  long  period. 

The  Plum  of  literature  and  tradition  is  the  European 
or  Domestica  type  —  the  Prunus  domestica  of  the  great 
botanist  Linnaeus.  The  fruit  has  been  grown  for  so 
many  centuries  that  it  is  not  known  just  what  wild  sort 
it  was  originally  developed  from,  though  it  probably  was 
a  wild  tree  in  Asia.  This  is  still  the  type  most  generally 
grown  in  America,  especially  in  the  Eastern  and  Pacific 
coast  regions,  where  the  climate  is  not  so  severe  as  to 
prevent  its  successful  growth.  These  plums  have  been 
grown  so  long,  however,  and  under  such  varying  condi- 
tions that  remarkable  variations  have  been  developed, 
each  type  of  variation  being  represented  by  several 
varieties. 

Classification 

The  types  of  Domestica  Plums  have  been  grouped  in 
five  distinct  classes  by  Bailey,  namely: 

I.  The  Prunes.  These  are  Plums  which  have  so 
much  sugar  in  their  composition  that  they  can  be  dried 

145 


146  CROP  PRODUCTION 

successfully.  California  and  other  Pacific  Coast  states 
grow  these  varieties  in  enormous  quantities,  leading  the 
world  in  prune  production.  About  the  year  1900  it  was 
estimated  that  150,000,000  pounds  a  year  were  produced 
in  this  region.  Most  prunes  are  made  from  dark  colored 
plums,  but  improved  sorts  of  light  colors  are  now  coming 
into  use. 

2.  TflE  Damson  Plums.  These  are  small  blue  plums 
formerly  very  popular  for  sauce  and  preserves.  They 
were  grown  largely  around  the  homes  of  the  early  settlers 
and  have  become  wild  in  many  locaHties.  They  are 
pictured  on  page  143. 

3.  The  Green  Gage  Plums.  These  are  rather  small 
plums,  green  or  yellow  green  when  ripe.  They  are  of 
excellent  quality  for  preserves,  but  are  less  grown  now 
than  formerly.     Reine  Claude  is  typical  of  this  group. 

4.  The  Yellow  or  Golden  Plums.  These  are 
distinguished  by  their  large  size  and  yellow  color.  They 
include  some  good  varieties,  such  as  Coe's  Golden  Drop. 

5.  The  Purple  Plums.  These  are  the  well-known 
plums,  like  the  Lombard,  having  red,  blue,  or  purple 
skins,  and  of  medium  or  large  size.  A  large  proportion 
of  the  commonly  grown  varieties  belong  to  this  group. 

Culture  and  Enemies 

,  The  Domestica  Plums  are  most  successful  on  a  com- 
paratively heavy  soil,  although  they  may  be  grown  to 
advantage  under  a  great  variety  of  conditions.  When 
grafted  upon  the  peach  they  succeed  in  sandy  soils.  In 
the  great  regions  adapted  to  their  growth  climatically 
they  are  justly  favorites  in  home  gardens  as  well  as  in 


THE   PLUMS  147 

commercial  plantations.  The  trees  should  be  set  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  feet  apart  according  to  the  variety. 
Two-year-old  trees  are  the  best  to  plant.  The  young 
trees  should  be  severely  pruned  back  before  setting. 
Careful  culture  or  heavy  mulching  should  be  given  the 
young  plantation,  together  with  plenty  of  plant  food, 
especially  that  rich  in  potash. 

Many  varieties  of  plums  will  not  set  fruit  unless  the 
blossoms  are  cross-pollinated  by  another  variety.  This 
is  a  common  reason  for  failure  with  the  crop.  It  is  easily 
avoided  by  planting  two  or  preferably  more  varieties 
near  one  another,  so  that  the  bees  and  other  insects  may 
carry  the  pollen  from  tree  to  tree.  These  must  be 
sorts,  however,  that  blossom  at  the  same  time.  In 
general  it  is  worth  while  to  grow  at  least  a  few 
trees  of  several  sorts  in  order  to  be  sure  of  abundant 
cross-pollination. 

The  Domestica  Plums  are  subject  to  many  attacks  by 
insects  and  fungous  diseases.  Unless  constant  watch  is 
kept  for  Black  Knot,  San  Jose  Scale,  Fruit  Rot,  and 
Curculios  the  trees  are  likely  soon  to  become  worthless. 
But  these  enemies  can  be  controlled  and  their  existence 
makes  the  plums  even  more  valuable  to  the  intelligent 
fruit  grower. 

Japanese  Plums 

In  1870  a  fruit  grower  in  California  imported  some 
plum  trees  from  Japan.  A  few  years  later  the  trees 
began  bearing  good  crops  of  attractive  fruit,  so  different 
from  the  other  plums  in  cultivation  that  it  seemed  worth 
while  to  propagate  the  variety.  So  about  1883  a  firm 
of  California  nurserymen  began  selling  the  trees,  naming 


148 


CROP   PRODUCTION 


the  variety  the  Kelsey,  after  the  man  who  owned  the 
original  trees.  Seedlings  from  these  original  fruits  were 
grown  and  other  importations  from  Japan  were  made, 
so  that  a  few  years  later  several  varieties  of  Japanese 
Plum  trees  were  upon  the  market. 

These  Japanese  Plums  differ  decidedly  from  the 
Domes tica  types.  Their  technical  name  is  Prunus 
triflora.  In  manner  of  growth  and  appearance  of  foliage 
they  are  suggestive  of  peach  trees.  They  grow  very 
rapidly  and  begin  bearing  early.  The  flowers  appear 
so  early  in  spring  that  they  are  often  in  danger  from 
late  frosts.  The  blossom  buds  are  clustered  beside  the 
leaf  buds  and  the  fruits  are  borne  in  such  thick  clusters 
along  the  branches  that  thinning  is  generally  necessary 
to  get  plums  of  large  size. 

Both  color  and  quality  of  the  fruits  vary  greatly, 
some  sorts  being  red,  others  yellow.  Some  are  good  for 
dessert  or  canning  and  others  are  poor  in  quaUty.  The 
trees  vary  greatly  in  hardiness  also,  some  kinds  enduring 

the  severest  winters  of  the 
extreme  northern  states, 
where  others  have  their 
fruit  buds  easily  killed  by 
freezing.  So  the  selection 
of  varieties  with  respect  to 
their  adaptation  to  special 
purposes  and  to  local  con- 
ditions is  very  important 
with  these  fruits. 
BuRBANK  Plums  The     Japanese     Plums 

have  been  especially  important  in  the  origination 
of   new  varieties  by  crossing  with  other  sorts.     Very 


THE   PLUMS 


149 


remarkable  results  have  been  obtained  by  Luther 
Burbank  in  California,  who  has  produced  many  new- 
plums  through  hybridizing  the  Japanese  with  other 
kinds.  Nearly  a  hundred  Hybrid  Plums,  largely  of 
Japanese  origin,  are  now  known  and  new  ones  are  fre- 
quently being  introduced.  Some  of  the  most  promising 
varieties  of  plums  are  found  in  the  hst  of  hybrids. 
Among  these  the  varieties  called  Apple,  Climax,  Golden, 
Maynard  and  Occident  or  Sultan  deserve  special 
mention. 

American  Plums 

The  third  important  group  of  plums  are  the  various 
American  types.  These  are  seedlings  or  hybrids  of  the 
several  species  of  wild 
plums,  native  to  vari- 
ous parts  of  North 
America.  They  are 
specially  valuable  be- 
cause of  their  hardi- 
ness, which  adapts 
them  to  climatic  condi- 
tions under  which  the 
European  and  Japan- 
ese varieties  cannot  be 
grown.  Botanically 
these  American  plums  ^^°  J^^^  ^^^^' 

are  much  confused  because  many  of  them  are  natural 
hybrids.  For  convenience  they  are  divided  into  certain 
groups,  of  which  the  most  important  are  the  Wild  Plum 
of  the  Mississippi  valley  region,  known  technically  as 
Prunus  Americana,  and  its  northern  variety  the  Canada 


ISO 


CROP   PRODUCTION 


Plum  (variety  nigra),  the  Wildgoose  Group,  the  Mmer 
Group,  and  the  Wayland  and  Chickasaw  groups.  Each 
of  these  groups  has  given  rise  to  varieties  now  or  for- 
merly in  cultivation,  and  in  general  especially  adapted 
to  certain  regions. 

A  great  many  of  the  Japanese,  the  Hybrid,  and  the 
American  Plums  are  self -sterile,  each  variety  requiring 
pollination  by  some  other  variety  that  blossoms  at  the 
same  time.  Consequently  it  is  very  important  in  plant- 
ing the  trees  to  learn  if  possible  by  the  experience  of 
others  in  the  same  locality  what  sorts  help  one  another 
in  this  way.  The  state  experiment  station  or  the  na- 
tional Department  of  Agriculture  can  generally  suggest 
such  varieties. 

While  good  plums  of  any  sort  are  especially  desirable 
for  the  home  garden,  they  also  find  a  ready  market  in  the 
larger  cities.  To  get  the  best  prices  care  is  needed  in 
culture  to  insure  large  size  and  good  quahty.  One  of 
the  best  receptacles  for  marketing  plums  is  the  ten 
pound  grape  basket,  generally  used  in  marketing 
grapes. 


Types 


Plums 


Domestica  or  European 


Japanese 


Prunes 
Damsons 
Green  Gages 
Yellow  Plums 
Purple  Plums 

Pure  Japanese 

Japanese  Hybrids 

Americana  Group 
Canada  Group 
Wildgoose  Group 
Miner  Group 

Wayland  Group 
Chickasaw    Group 


THE  PLUMS  151 

Plum  Pests 

Few  fruit  crops  are  so  beset  by  enemies  as  are  the 
plums.  Root,  trunk,  branch,  leaf,  flower,  and  fruit  are 
each  attacked  by  insects  or  fungi  or  both,  too  often  with 
disastrous  result.  Yet  the  very  fact  of  these  attacks 
makes  the  plums  worth  growing,  for  without  these 
various  enemies  the  fruit  would  be  so  abundant  as  to 
have  little  commercial  value. 

The  Black  Knot  has  probably  destroyed  more  plum 
trees  in  the  past  than  all  other  agencies  combined.  This 
is  a  fungous  disease  which  occurs  upon  wild  and  culti- 
vated cherries  and  plums  in  the  form  of  black,  wart-like 
excrescences  upon  the  bark  of  twigs  and  branches.  In 
many  regions  its  ravages  are  prevented  by  careful 
watchfulness. 


Black  Knot 

Black  Knot,  like  other  fungous  diseases,  reproduces 
by  means  of  spores.  These  appear  in  summer  as  a 
velvety  olive  green  coating  upon  the  bark  of  affected 
branches.  They  are  scattered  by  wind  and  rain  and 
when  they  lodge  upon  the  tender  bark  of  other  branches 
they  start  the  disease  anew.  Consequently  one  of  the 
first  remedial  measures  is  to  cut  and  burn  all  Black 
Knots  wherever  found  to  prevent  the  development  of 
these  spores.  It  is  also  necessary  to  keep  a  sharp  lookout 
all  through  the  summer  for  the  swollen  places  on  twigs 
and  larger  branches  that  indicate  new  attacks  of  the 


152  CROP  PRODUCTION 

fungus  and  to  cut  and  burn  these  promptly.     Spraying 
with  fungicides  will  also  prove  helpful. 

Other  Fungous  Diseases 

The  Brown  Rot  of  stone  fruits  is  another  serious 
menace  to  plum  culture.  It  is  the  disease  that  so  often 
causes  the  rotting  of  the  fruit  upon  the  tree  before  picking 
or  in  the  baskets  after  picking.  It  is  caused  by  a  fungus 
which  produces  myriads  of  spores  from  the  affected 
fruits,  these  spores  being  carried  by  the  wind  and  starting 
new  centers  of  disease  when  they  light  upon  other  plums. 

Many  of  the  injured  fruits  hang  as  shriveled  mummies 
upon  the  tree  through  the  winter  and  spring  while  others 
remain  upon  the  ground  beneath  the  tree.  These  de- 
velop new  Crops  of  spores  in  spring  and  summer,  these 
spores  often  causing  the  disease  to  appear  upon  the 
blossoms  in  spring  and  the  new  crop  of  fruit  in  summer. 
Consequently  the  destruction  of  all  these  mummied 
plums  is  desirable  if  we  hope  to  check  the  disease.  Then 
by  spraying  with  the  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  wash 
serious  injury  may  be  prevented. 

Young  plums  are  sometimes  affected  by  a  curious 
disease  which  causes  them  to  become  strangely  swollen 
with  hollow  spaces  where  the  pits  should  be.  The 
disease  is  called  Plum  Pockets:  it  is  due  to  a  parasitic 
fungus  closely  related  to  the  one  that  causes  Peach  Leaf- 
curl.  The  swollen  plums  often  become  covered  with 
a  powder  made  up  of  the  spores  of  the  fungus.  Then 
the  diseased  plums  fall  off,  but  threads  of  the  fungus 
remain  in  the  twigs  and  grow  along  with  the  twigs  so 
that  succeeding  crops  on  such  branches  are  very  likely 
to  be  diseased.     Consequently  it  is  desirable  to  cut  off 


THE   PLUMS 


153 


all  branches  which  bear  the  swollen  plums,  and  to  cut 
back  far  enough  to  get  rid  of  the  fungus  threads  in  the 
tissues  of  the  twig. 

The  foliage  of  both  plum  and  cherry  trees  is  often 
seriously  injured  by  Leaf-spot,  a  fungous  disease  which 
first  appears  in  the  form  of  small  discolored  spots, 
generally  purplish  in  color. 
These  spots  soon  turn 
brown,  and  when  the  spots 
are  numerous  the  leaves 
become  yellow  and  drop 
off.  When  not  so  numer- 
ous as  to  affect  the  whole 
leaf  the  little  brown  cir- 
cles sometimes  drop  out, 
leaving  holes  looking  as  if 
small  shot  had  been  fired 
through  the  leaf.  On  this 
account  the  fungus  is  some- 
times called  the  shot-hole  fungus.  The  disease  may  be 
prevented  by  spraying  three  or  four  times  with  the  self- 
boiled  lime-sulphur  wash. 

Insect  Pests 

Many  insects  attack  plum  trees  occasionally,  but  one 
pest  must  always  be  taken  into  consideration  —  the 
Plum  Curculio.  This  is  a  small  beetle  that  occurs 
practically  everywhere  that  plums  are  grown  and  appears 
practically  every  season  to  prey  upon  the  fruit.  Occa- 
sionally a  few  years  will  pass  when  it  is  so  scarce  that 
it  does  Httle  injury  and  on  large  plantations  it  often 
happens  that  there  are  so  many  more  plums  than  Cur- 


Plum  Pockets 


154 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


food  Puncture 
Larva 

-Egq  Puncrure 

PLUM 
CURCULIO 


culios  that  the  latter  are  a  positive  benefit  in  thinning 
the  fruit.  But  in  the  home  orchard  the  CurcuHo  needs 
looking  after  if  an  adequate  crop  is  to  be  gathered. 

The  adult  Plum  Curculios  appear  on  the  trees  in  early- 
spring  about  the  time  that  the  buds  open.  They  feed 
upon  the  young  leaves  awhile  and  remain  until  the 
blossoms  have  come  and  gone  and  the  fruit  has  set. 

Then  they  nibble 
Httle  cavities  in  the 
green  plums  for  food 
and  make  character- 
istic crescent-shaped 
marks  in  the  skin  in 
depositing  their  eggs 
in  the  green  flesh  of 
the  young  plums. 
These  eggs  soon  hatch 
into  little  grubs  that  feed  upon  the  pulp  and  render 
the  fruit  unfit  to  ripen.  So  it  falls  to  the  ground,  the 
grub  crawls  out  and  finds  shelter  in  the  soil.  Here  it 
changes  to  a  pupa  and  a  few  weeks  later  changes  to  an 
adult  beetle  that  lives  until  the  following  spring.  This 
insect  attacks  cherries,  peaches,  and  apples  as  well  as 
plums. 

In  orchards  the  Plum  CurcuHo  can  be  killed  off  largely 
by  spraying  with  arsenates.  In  smaller  plantings  it  is 
often  necessary  to  jar  the  trees  early  in  the  morning, 
catching  the  beetles  that  fall  by  first  placing  a  sheet  on 
the  ground  beneath  the  trees.  CurcuHo  catchers  are 
often  made  by  spreading  sheeting  over  a  frame  with  one 
or  more  wheels  attached.  The  CurcuHos  thus  caught 
are  of  course  destroyed. 


STONE  FRUITS:    THE   CHERRIES 

Varieties 

Let  pupils  tell  where  there  are  sweet  and  sour  cherry 
trees  growing  in  the  district. 

How  do  the  two  trees  differ  in  manner  of  growth? 

See  how  much  can  be  learned  about  the  names  of  the 
varieties  of  each  type  that  are  grown  successfully.  Make 
a  temporary  blackboard  Hst  under  these  headings: 

Sweet  or  Mazzard  Sour  or  Morello 


Enemies 

Make  a  map  of  the  district  and  mark  on  it  every 
locality  where  pupils  find  that  black  knot  is  growing 
on  wild  cherries,  cultivated  cherries,  or  plums. 

Get  each  pupil  to  agree  to  destroy  the  black  knot  on 
his  own  farm  or  home  grounds. 

Request  the  highway  commissioners  to  destroy  it 
along  the  highways. 


156 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


See  if  the  school  cannot  make  its  influence  felt  in  this 
one  campaign  against  black  knot. 

Let  teacher  and  pupil  feel  that  every  black  knot  to 
be  seen  in  the  district  is  a  reflection  on  the  efficiency  of 
the  school. 

Whenever  the  knot  is  eradicated  from  a  locality 
mark  off  the  place  in  red. 

Be  sure  that  all  knots  are  burned. 


THE  CHERRIES 

Commercially  the  Cherry  is  one  of  the  least  important 
of  the  Stone  Fruits,  the  product  being  of  decidedly  less 
value  than  peaches  or  plums.  There  are,  nevertheless, 
enormous  quantities  of  Cherries  grown  for  home  use  and 
in  a  few  regions  the  fruit  is  grown  for  canning  factories 
or  for  market. 

The  many  varieties  of  cultivated  Cherries  are  readily 
classified  into  two  great  groups  —  the  Sweet  Cherries 
and  the  Sour  Cherries.  The  Sweet  or  Mazzard  Cherries 
are  all  derived  from  a  tree  native  to  Europe  and  Asia 
called  by  botanists  Prunus  avium.  The  Sour  or  Morello 
Cherries  are  all  derived  from  another  tree,  also  native  to 
Asia  and  perhaps  to  Europe,  called  by  botanists  Prunus 
cerasus.  Both  of  these  trees  have  been  in  cultivation 
for  a  long  period  and  have  run  wild  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States. 

Sweet  Cherries 

The  Sweet  or  Mazzard  Cherry  tree  grows  erect  with  a 
main  central  stem  beside  which  the  branches  run  in  a 
nearly  vertical  direction,  giving  the  trees  a  pyramidal 
appearance  which  is  especially  marked  when  they  are 
young.  The  wild  seedlings  are  abundant  in  the  Atlantic 
states  and  are  commonly  called  Mazzard  Cherries. 
These  Mazzard  seedlings  are  largely  used  as  a  stock  on 
which  to  graft  the  various  sorts  of  both  sweet  and  sour 
157 


158  CROP  PRODUCTION 

cherries.     The  fruit  of  these  is  inferior  to  the  cultivated 
sorts,  of  which  there  are  three  principal  types,  namely: 
the  Hearts,  the  Bigarreaus,  and  the  Dukes.    These  three 
types  are  characterized  thus: 
Hearts:    fruit  sweet,  soft,  heart-shaped,  as  in  Black 

Tartarian. 
Bigarreaus:     fruit   sweet,   firm,   heart-shaped,   as   in 

Napoleon. 
Dukes:  fruit  rather  sour,  as  in  May  Duke. 

Sour  Cherries 

The  Sour  or  Morello  Cherry  tree  grows  in  a  low  spread- 
ing manner  that  at  once  distinguishes  it  from  the  Mazzard 
type  of  tree.  The  trunk  breaks  up  into  several  branches 
without  a  main  central  stem  and  these  branches  grow 
outward  horizontally  rather  than  upward  vertically. 
Wild  seedHngs  are  abundant  in  many  regions  where 
Cherries  have  been  grown  for  a  long  period,  and  these 
seedKngs  often  occur  in  thickets  because  the  trees  send 
up  suckers  freely  from  the  roots.  When  well  treated 
such  seedlings  often  yield  excellent  fruit.  There  are 
two  types  of  Sour  Cherries,  namely: 

Amarelles:  fruit  round,  with  skin  light  red,  juice 
colorless,  as  in  Early  Richmond. 

Morellos:  fruit  round,  with  skin  and  juice  dark  red,  as 
in  EngHsh  Morello. 

Cherry  trees  thrive  in  a  light,  loamy,  well-drained,  and 
fairly  rich  soil  in  regions  where  the  air  is  not  too  dry. 
Consequently  it  is  a  crop  for  northern  and  coast  regions 
rather  than  the  great  plains  areas.  The  Sour  Cherries 
are  hardier  and  adapted  to  a  wider  range  of  soil  and 
climate  than  the  Sweet.     One  or  two-year-old  trees  are 


THE   CHERRIES  159 

planted  and  all  varieties  should  be  so  pruned  as  to  make 
low  spreading  heads,  an  easy  process  with  the  Sour  type 
but  more  difficult  with  the  Sweet.  The  possibilities  of 
profit  from  commercial  planting  depend  very  largely 
upon  the  accessibiHty  of  a  good  market. 

Enemies 

Cherry  trees  are  particularly  liable  to  destruction  by 
Black  Knot,  caused  by  the  same  parasitic  fungus  that 
attacks  the  plum.  This  is  the  main  reason  for  the 
disappearance  of  the  cherry  trees  on  thousands  of  home 
grounds.  A  constant  watch  for  the  first  signs  of  the 
disease — shown  by  the  swelling  of  the  bark — -should  be 
kept  and  such  injured  parts  immediately  be  cut  off  and 
burned.  All  wild  cherry  or  wild  plum  trees  that  show 
the  Knots  in  the  neighborhood  should  also  be  burned 
and  united  action  be  taken  by  the  whole  community  to 
suppress  the  disease. 

The  cherry  is  subject  to  much  the  same  injury  by 
Leaf-spot  and  Brown  Rot  that  the  plum  is.  The  Leaf- 
spot  is  often  injurious  to  young  trees  and  in  moist  cli- 
mates is  frequently  supplemented  by  the  Cherry  Powdery 
Mildew,  which  causes  the  leaves  to  curl  up  and  drop  off. 
The  Brown  Rot  is  usually  less  destructive  than  on  plums 
because  the  cherry  fruits  do  not  touch  one  another  as  the 
plums  often  do.  Spraying  with  the  lime-sulphur  wash 
is  helpful  in  preventing  all  of  these  diseases. 

The  Plum  Curculio  also  attacks  cherries  and  some- 
times causes  the  loss  of  much  of  the  crop.  In  large 
plantations  the  injury  may  be  prevented  to  a  great 
extent  by  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  but  where  the 
attack  is  severe  upon  a  few  trees  the  jarring  method 


i6o 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


should  be  employed.  The  leaves  of  cherries  are  often 
injured  by  the  Cherry  Slug,  pictured  below,  which  is 
easily  killed  by  dusting  air-slaked  lime  or  other  pow- 
dery materials  over  the  tree,  or  by  spraying  with 
hellebore  or  arsenate  of  lead.  The  young  leaves  are 
also  attacked  by  the  Cherry  Aphis,  a  pest  to  be  des- 
troyed by  early  spraying  with  dilute  kerosene  emul- 
sion   or   some   form   of    tobacco  decoction. 


SMALL  FRUITS:    THE   GRAPE 

Varieties 

Learn  what  varieties  of  grapes  are  grown  in  your 
district.  Make  a  list  of  the  good  quaHties  of  each  as 
indicated  by  these  headings : 

EarHness  of  ripening 

Hardiness  in  hving  over  winter 

Size  of  berries 

Size  of  clusters 

Freedom  from  disease 

Fungous  Diseases  {Summer  and  Autumn) 

Let  pupils  look  over  grapes  on  their  home  grounds. 
If  some  of  the  berries  are  shriveling  and  turning  black 
they  are  probably  affected  with  black  rot. 

Look  also  for  a  whitish  mildew  on  the  leaves  and 
young  grapes,  with  a  more  or  less  powdery  effect.  This 
is  the  powdery  mildew. 

Learn  whether  vineyards  sprayed  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  suffer  much  from  these  diseases. 

i6i 


l62 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


Just  after  the  fruit  sets  tie  paper  bags  over  some  of 
the  clusters,  and  leave  on  till  the  grapes  are  ripe. 

Insect  Enemies 

Look  for  grape  leaf  hoppers  on  the  leaves.  Find  the 
different  stages.     See  how  they  get  their  food. 

Look  also  for  grape-vine  flea-beetles.  See  how  they 
differ  from  the  leaf  hoppers. 

Find  clusters  of  green  grapes  attacked  by  the  larvae 
of  the  grape-berry  moth.  See  the  whitish  worm  that 
does  the  damage. 


THE  GRAPE 

The  Grape  is  one  of  the  most  generally  grown  of  the 
small  fruits.  One  or  more  vines  are  to  be  found  in  the 
home  grounds  of  most  Americans  in  village  and  country. 
In  certain  sections  where  climate  and  soil  are  especially 
favorable,  extensive  vineyards  produce  great  quantities 
of  the  fruit  for  market.  There  are  so  many  varieties 
that  the  Grape  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  climate  and 
can  be  grown  with  profit  from  Maine  to  Texas. 

Grape  vines  may  be  grown  successfully  in  a  great 
variety  of  soils,  but  they  thrive  best  in  a  deep,  porous, 
well-drained,  sandy  loam.  If  the  soil  is  too  rich  in 
nitrogen  there  is  a  growth  of  vine  at  the  expense  of  fruit. 
So  care  should  be  taken  to  fertilize  only  moderately, 
especially  with  regard  to  nitrogen.  If  the  soil  is  acid, 
lime  should  be  added  and  in  warm  climates  especial  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  roots  can  go  deep  enough 
into  the  subsoil  to  escape  the  parching  heat  of  summer. 

Early  spring  is  the  best  time  for  planting  grapes.  One- 
year-old  vines  are  to  be  preferred  to  older  ones  as  they 
make  a  better  start  with  less  checking  of  their  growth. 
They  should  be  set  six  to  ten  feet  apart  in  well-prepared 
holes.  In  case  of  a  few  plants  about  the  home  it  is 
worth  while  to  bury  a  few  pounds  of  old  bones  in  the 
bottom  of  each  hole.  These  will  furnish  materials  for 
growth  to  the  roots  in  later  years.  Before  or  just  after 
planting,  the  vines  should  be  severely  pruned,  cutting 
163 


164 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


back  to  two  or  three  buds.     Each  vine  should  be  set 
about  two  inches  deeper  than  it  formerly  grew. 

Pruning 

Volumes  have  been  written  concerning  the  pruning  of 
grape  vines.  There  are  many  different  systems  of  such 
pruning.    They  all  depend  primarily  upon  the  fact  that 


Renewal  System  of  Grape  Pruning 

Branches  AAA  will  bear  next  year 

the  fruit  is  borne  on  the  new  wood  of  the  same  season's 
growth.  Consequently  the  canes  of  the  previous  seasons' 
growth  are  cut  back  to  two  or  three  buds,  so  that  the  new 
shoots  sent  out  may  have  abundant  nourishment  for 
the  development  of  a  few  bunches  of  fruit.  One  of  the 
important  aims  in  pruning  is  so  to  reduce  the  number  of 
clusters  that  the  vine  will  be  able  to  mature  them  all, 
without  a  strain  upon  its  vitaUty.  Another  object  in 
pruning  is  to  keep  the  fruit  within  easy  reach,  without 
the  growth  of  long  branches  that  carry  the  bearing 
shoots  far  away  from  the  roots.  Pruning  is  generally 
done  late  in  winter  shortly  before  spring  growth  starts. 


THE   GRAPE  165 

The  details  of  pruning  depend  to  a  considerable  extent 
upon  the  method  of  training  adopted.  Some  vine- 
yardists  train  to  trellises  with  three  wires  one  above 
another;  this  is  called  the  upright  system.  Others  train 
to  trellises  with  three  wires  arranged  horizontally  beside 
one  another;  this  is  called  the  canopy  system.  The 
latter  is  especially  popular  in  southern  regions. 

Propagation 

Grape  vines  are  easily  propagated  by  layering.  In 
early  spring  make  a  shallow  furrow  three  inches  deep 
near  a  vine  in  the  direction  of  the  rows.  Lay  a  cane  of 
last  year's  growth  along  the  bottom  of   this  furrow, 


Grape  Cuttings 
leaving  the  cane  attached  to  the  plant.  Peg  the  cane 
down  with  small  sticks.  After  the  new  shoots  that  will 
come  from  the  buds  on  this  cane  have  grown  to  the 
length  of  six  inches,  fill  in  the  furrow  with  soil.  Roots 
will  be  sent  out  from  the  base  of  each  shoot,  and  a  good 
plant  will  be  thus  formed  by  autumn.  This  method  is 
especially  adapted  to  home  gardens. 

The  grape  is  also  easily  propagated  by  cuttings.  These 
should  be  eight  to  ten  inches  long,  and  cut  late  in  au- 
tumn from  well-ripened  wood  grown  that  season.  They 
should  be  tied  together  in  small  bundles  and  buried  in 
well-drained  soil  or  stored  in  sand  or  sawdust,  or  in  a 


i66  CROP  PRODUCTION 

cool  cellar.  Early  in  spring  they  should  be  planted  out- 
doors in  rich,  moist  soil,  being  buried  vertically  about  six 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  soil  should  be  thoroughly 
tramped  down  around  them  so  that  the  bottom  of  the 
cutting  will  be  in  direct  contact  with  it.  A  good  pro- 
portion of  these  cuttings  of  varieties  that  root  easily, 
like  Concord  and  Niagara,  make  a  growth  of  two  or 
three  feet  of  new  shoots  during  the  season.  The  next 
spring  the  young  vines  are  ready  for  transplanting. 

Enemies 

Grapes  are  attacked  by  many  insects  and  parasitic 
fungi.  Few  of  the  former  are  so  numerous  as  to  be 
generally  destructive  every  year,  although  at  times  some 
of  them  become  pests  over  wide  areas. 

Of  the  fungi  the  Black  Rot  is  perhaps  the  most  seri- 
ous, especially  in  southern  regions.  It  commonly  first 
appears  on  the  leaves  early  in  summer  as  small  reddish 
brown  spots.  A  little  later  similar  spots  show  upon  the 
green  grapes.  The  latter  soon  rot,  shrivel,  and  turn 
black,  assuming  a  characteristic  appearance.  Spraying 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  prevents  this  and  other  grape 
diseases,  although  for  a  few  home  vines,  tying  paper 
bags  about  the  young  clusters  and  leaving  them  on 
until  the  fruit  ripens  is  a  simpler  preventive. 


SMALL  FRUITS:    CURRANTS  AND   GOOSEBERRIES 

Characteristics 

In  what  ways  can  you  tell  gooseberry  bushes  from 
currant  bushes?  In  what  ways  are  gooseberry  fruits 
used  for  food? 

Can  you  learn  the  names  of  any  varieties  of  currants 
and  gooseberries  grown  in  your  district? 

Growing  Cuttings 

Let  each  pupil  make  cuttings  of  new  wood  about  eight 
inches  long  in  autumn.  Tie  in  bunches  and  bury  in 
sandy  soil  until  spring. 

In  spring  dig  up.  See  the  callus  on  the  cut  ends. 
Plant  in  rows,  six  inches  apart  in  the  row,  leaving  two 
inches  of  cutting  above  the  ground. 

Keep  hoed  and  free  from  weeds  throughout  the 
season.  The  following  spring  distribute  to  the  pupils 
to  set  out  at  home. 

Insect  Pests  {Spring) 

Watch  the  lower  leaves  of  currants  and  gooseberry 

bushes   for  eggs  and   small   larvae   of  currant  worms 

soon  after  the  leaves  appear.    As  soon  as  small  round 

holes  are  seen,  spray  with  hellebore  or  arsenate  of  lead. 

167 


1 68  CROP  PRODUCTION 

Place  a  few  currant  worms  in  a  tumbler  and  feed  with 
leaves  to  rear  the  larvae  and  see  the  changes  they 
undergo. 

Watch  for  weak  canes  in  spring.  Cut  open  to  see  if 
they  are  hollowed  out  by  the  cane-borer.  Remove  and 
burn  affected  canes. 

Fungous  Diseases 

Find  leaves  affected  by  leaf-spot.  See  how  the  green 
part  is  injured  by  the  spread  of  the  fungus. 

See  whether  spotted  leaves  drop  off  before  the  healthy 


THE    GROSELLE   FRUITS 

Currants  and  Gooseberries  are  the  domesticated  t)^es 
of  a  great  genus  of  wild  plants  called  Ribes.  More 
than  a  score  of  species  belong  to  this  genus,  which  is  of 
almost  world-wide  distribution.  Only  a  few  of  these 
species  are  of  economic  importance,  however,  the  most 
notable  being  those  from  which  our  garden  Currants  and 
Gooseberries  have  been  derived.  The  word  Groselle, 
adapted  from  an  old  French  name,  has  been  adopted  to 
include  the  fruit-producing  forms  of  Ribes,  so  we  may 
use  it  when  we  wish  to  include  both  currants  and  goose- 
berries. 

Currants 

The  garden  Currants,  including  both  the  red  and  the 
white  fruited  varieties,  have  been  derived  from  a  wild 
species  found  in  northern  regions  practically  around  the 
globe.  It  is  called  Ribes  ruhrum  and  is  native  to  Europe, 
Asia,  and  North  America.  The  botany  books  say  it  is 
found  in  "cold  woods"  and  that  in  America  it  ranges 
south  to  "northern  New  England,  New  Jersey,  Indiana, 
and  Minnesota."  In  view  of  this  statement  of  the  home 
of  the  wild  plant  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  as  a 
successful  garden  crop  the  Currant  is  limited  to  northern 
regions,  though  sometimes  it  flourishes  farther  south  in 
mountainous  locaUties. 

A  deep,  moist,  rich,  loamy  soil  and  a  cool  climate 
with  only  moderate  sunshine  furnish  the  conditions 
169 


I70  CROP  PRODUCTION 

under  which  the  garden  Currant  thrives,  growing 
vigorously  through  a  long  season,  retaining  its  leaves 
till  the  end  of  summer,  and  producing  an  abundant  crop 
of  good  fruit.  Without  these  favoring  conditions,  the 
growth  is  weak,  the  leaves  are  shed  long  before  the 
proper  time,  and  the  crop  is  small  in  quantity  and  poor 
in  quality. 

In  addition  to  the  common  Red  Currants  there  are 
several  white  varieties  derived  from  the  same  source. 
The  Black  Currants  in  cultivation  are  practically  all 
varieties  derived  from  the  wild  European  Black  Currant 
—  Rihes  nigrum.  These  are  much  more  popular  in 
Europe  than  in  America,  for  they  are  seldom  grown  here. 

Propagation  and  Culture 

Few  fruit  crops  are  easier  to  propagate  than  Currants. 
This  is  done  by  hard-wood  cuttings  of  the  newly  grown 
canes.  Vigorous  canes  that  have  just  finished  their  sea- 
son's growth  are  cut  into  lengths  of  six  or  eight  inches, 
tied  in  bundles  of  a  dozen  or  more,  and  buried  vertically 
in  sandy  soil  to  an  inch  above  their  tops.  They  are  left 
thus  until  spring,  being  mulched  with  leaves  or  litter 
through  the  winter.  By  spring  the  lower  end  will  have 
healed  over  by  means  of  a  callus  and  the  cuttings  may 
be  set  six  or  eight  inches  apart  in  rows,  being  buried  so 
that  only  an  inch  or  so  of  the  upper  end  is  exposed. 
These  will  send  out  roots  and  shoots  and  by  another 
spring  be  ready  to  set  out  as  one-year  plants. 

In  establishing  the  permanent  plantation,  two-year- 
old  plants  are  generally  set  four  feet  apart,  in  rows  six 
feet  apart.  The  plants  should  be  inserted  a  little  deeper 
than  they  were  before,  that  a  good  root  growth  may  be 


CURRANTS   AND  GOOSEBERRIES  171 

established.  In  the  most  northern  states  they  may  be 
set  in  full  exposure  to  the  sun,  but  farther  south  it  is 
desirable  to  choose  a  partially  shaded  situation.  Good 
tillage  or  heavy  mulching  should  be  given  and  liberal 
applications  of  wood  ashes  or  other  fertilizer  rich  in 
potash  should  be  made.  The  bushes  will  begin  bearing 
the  second  season  after  planting.  After  that  the  old 
wood  should  be  removed  occasionally,  though  care 
shotild  be  taken  not  to  thin  out  too  severely. 

Diseases  and  Enemies 

The  Currant  is  subject  to  certain  leaf-spot  diseases, 
which  often  cause  the  early  dropping  of  the  foliage  and 
a  loss  of  fruitfulness  the  following  season.  These  are 
due  to  the  growth  of  parasitic  fungi,  which  produce 
small  brownish  spots  that  gradually  enlarge  until  they 
cover  most  of  the  leaf,  or  several  may  run  together  to 
form  large  blotches.  The  leaves  soon  drop  off  and  the 
storage  of  food  materials  by  the  bush  ceases  for  the 
season.  Sometimes  an  existing  crop  upon  the  vines  is 
unable  to  ripen,  but  more  often  the  loss  is  shown  in  the 
smallness  of  the  crop  the  following  season.  The  choos- 
ing of  cuttings  from  the  least  affected  bushes,  the  burn- 
ing of  fallen  leaves,  and  spraying  with  fungicides  are  the 
best  measures  of  prevention. 

The  Currant  Worm  is  one  of  the  most  destructive 
garden  insects.  It  is  found  in  most  places  where  cur- 
rants are  grown,  and  unless  poisoned  commonly  defoli- 
ates the  bushes.  Wintering  over  in  cocoons  beneath 
the  bushes,  the  parent  flies  appear  in  the  garden  early 
in  spring  and  lay  their  eggs  upon  the  young  leaves.  The 
eggs  soon  hatch  into  the  worms  or  larvae  that  devour 


172 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


the  leaves  greedily  for  several  weeks.  Then  they  form 
cocoons  beneath  the  bushes  and  change  to  pupae,  soon 
changing  again   to   the  second  brood  of  flies.     These 


The  Currant  Worm 

Eggs  on  leaf;  larvae  eating  leaf;  adult  fly 

flies  lay  eggs  for  the  second  brood  of  larvae,  which  are 
often  overwhelmingly  abundant.  Spraying  or  dusting 
the  bushes  with  hellebore  when  the  leaves  are  two-thirds 
grown  is  the  remedy  generally  employed. 

Gooseberries 

From  time  immemorial  a  species  of  Gooseberry  (now 
called  by  botanists  Ribes  grossularia)  has  been  growing 
wild  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  The  ripe  fruit  doubt- 
less has  been  eaten  by  men  for  thousands  of  years,  but 


CURRANTS  AND   GOOSEBERRIES  173 

it  seems  that  the  plants  were  not  cultivated  in  gardens 
until  about  four  hundred  years  ago.  Between  the  years 
1500  and  1600  the  plants  were  frequently  cultivated  in 
Europe,  especially  in  Holland  and  England,  and  various 
distinct  varieties  were  developed.  At  a  later  period 
the  cultivation  of  the  Gooseberry  became  a  hobby  with 
the  weavers  of  Lancashire,  England.  They  had  Goose- 
berry exhibits  every  year  and  did  a  great  deal  to  im- 
prove the  size  and  quality  of  the  fruit.  Thanks  largely 
to  their  interest  there  are  now  many  varieties  of  these 
English  Gooseberries  grown  in  England  and  to  a  less 
extent  in  America. 

From  time  immemorial,  also,  a  species  of  Gooseberry 
(called  by  botanists  Rihes  oxyacanthoides)  has  been  grow- 
ing wild  in  North  America,  especially  in  the  eastern 
United  States.  The  ripe  fruit  had  doubtless  been 
utilized  by  the  Indians  centuries  before  the  Pilgrims 
landed  at  Plymouth,  and  probably  was  eaten  by  both 
Indians  and  Whites  thereafter.  But  so  far  as  we  know, 
no  one  took  the  trouble  to  grow  these  Gooseberry  plants 
in  gardens  until  about  1833,  when  a  seedling  was  raised 
from  a  wild  Gooseberry  fruit  at  Lynn,  Massachusetts, 
by  Abel  Houghton.  It  proved  so  valuable  that  it  was 
introduced  as  a  new  variety,  and  named  the  Houghton, 
after  the  originator.  It  is  still  grown,  though  better 
sorts  have  since  been  obtained  as  seedlings  from  it.  It 
is  probable  that  the  original  Houghton  plant  was  a 
hybrid,  the  pollen  that  fertilized  the  seed  coming  from 
one  of  the  English  sorts  growing  near  a  wild  plant  set 
in  Abel  Houghton's  garden.  Many  sorts  since  intro- 
duced are  also  such  hybrids. 

Thus  it  happens  that  we  have  in  America  today  two 


174  CROP  PRODUCTION 

types  of  Gooseberries  —  the  European  and  the  Ameri- 
can, with  many  varieties  of  each.  The  European  berries 
are  larger,  but  have  thicker  skins  and  are  the  poorer  in 
the  quahty  of  the  fruit.  They  have  the  great  defect, 
however,  that  they  are  very  subject  to  attack  by  Goose- 
berry Mildew,  a  fungous  disease  that  practically  pre- 
vents their  being  grown  to  any  great  extent  without 
persistent  spraying.  Industry  and  Triumph  are  the 
most  important  of  the  European  sorts  now  planted  in 
America.  In  some  favored  localities  they  are  not  much 
injured  by  Mildew. 

Except  in  the  matter  of  size  the  varieties  of  American 
origin  are  better  than  the  European,  being  hardier  and 
more  vigorous  and  yielding  fruit  with  thinner  skins 
and  of  better  quality.  Many  of  the  American  sorts  are 
chance  seedHngs  from  wild  plants,  while  others  are 
hybrids  in  which  the  American  characters  predominate. 
The  Downing  is  the  most  popular  sort.  It  is  a  seedling 
of  the  Houghton  and  was  first  grown  by  Charles  Downing 
in  New  York  state. 

Propagation  and  Culture 

Gooseberries  are  grown  from  cuttings,  although  uni- 
form success  is  not  so  easy  as  with  currant  cuttings. 
The  method  is  the  same  in  both  cases,  but  the  Goose- 
berry stems  do  not  root  so  readily.  In  nursery  practice 
new  plants  are  generally  grown  by  a  special  system  of 
layering.  Well-established  bushes  several  years  old  are 
severely  cut  back  in  the  fall  or  winter  so  that  a  vigorous 
crop  of  young  shoots  will  be  sent  out  in  spring.  Then 
soil  is  mounded  up  around  the  bush  and  filled  in  at  the 
center  in  such  a  way  that  the  bases  of  the  young  shoots 


CURRANTS   AND   GOOSEBERRIES  175 

are  buried  in  a  few  inches  of  soil.  The  shoots  send  out 
roots  into  this  soil  and  when  well  grown  may  be  cut  off 
below  the  roots,  thus  furnishing  new  plants.  American 
varieties  of  Gooseberries  are  also  propagated  occasionally 
by  means  of  root-cuttings. 

Like  the  currant  the  Gooseberry  is  essentially  a 
northern  fruit.  It  thrives  in  a  cool  climate  in  a  rich, 
moist  soil.  It  is  a  home  garden  fruit  more  than  a 
market  fruit,  although  in  the  larger  cities  there  is  a  fair 
demand  for  the  berries,  which  are  generally  picked 
green.  In  gardens  the  bushes  can  often  be  kept  in  good 
thrift  by  the  use  of  a  thick  mulch  of  grass  or  coarse  litter 
which  will  shade  the  soil,  retain  moisture,  and  prevent 
the  growth  of  weeds. 

Enemies 

Gooseberries  are  subject  to  attack  by  much  the  same 
insect  and  fungous  enemies  as  the  currant,  with  the 
Powdery  Mildew  as  an  added  source  of  trouble.  As 
already  indicated  this  is  seldom  noticed  upon  the  varie- 
ties of  American  origin,  but  is  very  destructive  to  the 
European  sorts.  This  fungus  usually  appears  in  spring 
upon  the  partially  grown  leaves  and  buds,  first  showing 
as  a  sparse,  cobweb-like  covering.  Later  it  assumes  a 
more  powdery  appearance  because  of  the  development 
of  millions  of  tiny  white  spores.  The  young  berries  are 
also  attacked,  generally  being  dwarfed  and  one-sided 
as  they  develop.  Spraying  with  a  solution  of  potassium 
sulphid,  one  ounce  to  two  gallons,  about  once  in  ten  days 
from  the  time  the  buds  begin  to  open  until  the  fruit  is 
gathered  will  prevent  the  disease.  But  it  is  easier  to 
grow  the  American  sorts  which  are  not  subject  to  it. 


SMALL  FRUITS:    THE  RASPBERRIES 
Black  Raspberries 

See  how  blackcap  raspberries  differ  from  red  rasp- 
berries. 

Learn  what  varieties  are  grown  in  your  district. 

Mount  in  your  booklet  some  catalogue  pictures  of 
good  varieties. 

Did  you  ever  see  any  of  the  yellow-fruited  or  the  pink- 
fruited  sorts? 

How  are  new  plants  obtained? 

See  if  you  can  find  canes  attacked  by  the  disease 
called  anthracnose. 

Red  Raspberries 

See  how  the  Red  Raspberries  differ  from  the  Blackcaps. 
Learn  what  varieties  are  grown  in  your  district. 
How  are  new  plants  obtained? 


176 


THE   RASPBERRIES 

Blackcap  Raspberries 

The  wild  Black  Raspberry  is  one  of  the  most  abundant 
and  widely  distributed  of  the  fruits  native  to  North 
America.  The  type  species  {Rubus  occidentalis)  is  found 
throughout  the  region  north  of  Georgia  and  Missouri 
to  Oregon  and  British  Columbia,  while  a  special  variety 
occurs  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  on  the  Pacific 
Coast. 

So  far  as  the  records  show,  the  fruit  was  first  brought 
into  cultivation  in  1832,  when  Nicholas  Longworth,  of 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  found  a  very  promising  wild  plant 
which  he  transferred  to  his  garden  and  introduced 
to  horticulturists  under  the  name  Ohio  Everbearing. 
Nearly  twenty  years  later  another  promising  plant  was 
found  wild  in  New  York  state  and  introduced  about  1850 
as  the  Doolittle.  Since  then  a  great  many  varieties  have 
been  introduced,  most  of  them  being  chance  seedlings 
that  have  attracted  attention  on  account  of  the  special 
excellence  of  their  fruit. 

The  Black  Raspberry  is  distinguished  from  other 
raspberries  chiefly  by  the  purplish  black  color  of  its  fruit 
and  the  habit  of  forming  new  plants  from  the  tips  of  the 
canes  as  they  bend  over  and  touch  the  ground.  Some- 
times vines  bearing  yellow  fruit  are  found.  These 
"sports"  have  been  introduced  under  such  names  as 
Goldencap,  Yellowcap,  and  American  White. 


178  CROP  PRODUCTION 

Black  Raspberries  have  become  important  commercial 
fruits  in  practically  all  northern  markets  and  have  also 
been  largely  utilized  for  drying.  The  fact  that  the  berries 
are  fairly  firm  enables  them  to  stand  shipment  better 
than  the  red  raspberries.  The  evaporated  product  is 
on  sale  throughout  the  year  and  has  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  great  plantations  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
evaporating  factories.  In  a  single  county  in  New  York 
one  thousand  tons  of  dried  raspberries  have  been  pro- 
duced annually. 

Culture 

Black  Raspberries  thrive  in  a  deep,  rich,  loamy  soil. 
On  a  large  scale  they  are  planted  in  hills  five  or  six  feet 
apart  each  way  and  cultivated  in  both  directions  by 
horse  power.  On  a  smaller  scale  and  in  home  gardens 
they  are  set  in  rows  about  four  feet  apart,  the  plants 
being  about  three  feet  apart  in  the  row.  The  trans- 
planting is  best  done  in  early  spring.  The  plants  should 
be  set  three  or  four  inches  deep  and  gradually  covered 
deeper  as  the  new  shoots  develop.  When  thus  set 
rather  deep  they  withstand  dry  weather  better  because 
the  roots  are  further  from  the  surface  and  the  canes 
being  more  deeply  imbedded  in  the  soil  are  less  likely 
to  be  blown  over  than  when  the  plants  are  set  nearer  the 
surface.     All  large  canes  should  be  cut  back  severely. 

The  Raspberry  plantation  requires  frequent  tillage  to 
conserve  moisture  and  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds. 
It  is  especially  important  to  keep  out  witch-grass  or 
other  grasses  having  a  similar  habit  of  growth.  The 
young  canes  should  be  cut  or  pinched  off  as  soon  as  they 
reach  a  height  of  two  feet :  they  will  lengthen  some  after 


THE   RASPBERRIES  179 

this  and  will  send  out  numerous  side  branches  which 
will  bear  fruit  the  next  season.  After  four  or  five  good 
canes  have  started  from  each  hill,  any  others  should  be 
cut  out.  As  soon  after  the  crop  is  harvested  as  possible 
all  the  old  canes  should  be  removed,  cutting  off  as  low 
as  possible,  and  promptly  burned  to  destroy  insect  and 
fungous  pests. 

Enemies 
Of  the  numerous  enemies  of  Black  Raspberries  the 
Anthracnose  is  most  generally  troublesome.  It  appears 
on  the  young  shoots  in  early  summer  as  small,  reddish- 
purple  spots  scattered  over  the  bark.  These  spots 
increase  in  size  rapidly,  their  centers  becoming  grayish 
white.  Each  spot  is  surrounded  by  a  purplish  margin. 
As  the  weeks  go  by  the  spots  become  larger  and  more 
numerous,  often  running  together  in  long  blotches. 
As  both  bark  and  sapwood  are  affected  the  supply  of  sap 
to  leaves  and  fruit  is  partially  cut  off,  frequently  causing 
much  loss  to  the  crop.  The  parasitic  fungus  which 
causes  the  trouble  reproduces  by  means  of  spores  that 
develop  upon  the  diseased  spots.  Consequently  the 
cutting  and  burning  of  the  canes  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is 
picked  is  an  important  preventive  measure. 

The  Red  and  the  Purple  Raspberries 

The  cultivated  Red  Raspberries  include  three  rather 
distinct  groups  of  varieties,  namely:  (i)  those  derived 
from  the  European  Red  Raspberry,  Ruhus  idaeus; 
(2)  those  derived  from  the  American  Red  Raspberry, 
Ruhus  strigosus;  (3)  those  derived  from  the  Purple-cane 
Raspberry,  Ruhus  neglectus. 

The  European  Red  Raspberry  is  found  wild  over  a  vast 


i8o  CROP  PRODUCTION 

regional!  Europe  and  Asia.  Its  fruit  has  doubtless  been 
relished  by  mankind  ever  since  human  beings  appeared 
upon  the  earth  and  forms  of  it  have  been  cultivated  for 
at  least  sixteen  centuries.  A  great  many  improved  varie- 
ties are  now  grown  in  Europe  and  many  have  been  intro- 
duced into  America  during  the  last  hundred  years.  Most 
of  these,  however,  have  not  proved  hardy  inour  cHmate,  so 
that  very  few  of  them  are  now  grown  here.  The  fruit  of 
these  European  sorts  is  generally  larger  and  of  finer  qual- 
ity than  those  derived  from  our  wild  red  raspberry. 

The  American  Red  Raspberry  is  native  to  the  great 
northern  region  extending  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  west 
to  Arizona  and  Missouri  and  north  to  Alaska.  It  is 
generally  abundant  and  as  a  wild  plant  yields  a  fair 
quality  of  fruit.  Most  of  the  varieties  now  in  cultiva- 
tion have  been  derived  from  chance  seedlings  that  have 
been  brought  into  gardens  and  given  good  culture.  These 
varieties  are  generally  hardy  in  our  climate  and  have  the 
habit  of  ripening  their  fruit  during  a  much  shorter  period 
than  the  European  varieties.  The  latter  point  is  of 
special  advantage  in  growing  for  market,  as  the  fruit 
can  be  gathered  with  fewer  pickings.  Both  these  types 
of  red  raspberries  multiply  by  suckers  sent  up  from 
the  roots.  Cuthbert,  Turner,  and  Loudon  are  three  of 
of  the  best  American  Red  Raspberries. 

The  Purple-cane  Raspberries  or  the  Purple  Rasp- 
berries are  believed  to  have  been  derived  from  a  natural 
hybrid  between  the  Blackcap  and  the  American  Red 
Raspberries.  The  fruit  is  of  a  purplish  red  intermediate 
between  the  colors  of  the  fruits  of  these  two  species,  and 
the  plants  multiply  both  from  the  tips  like  the  blackcaps 
and  from  root  suckers  like  the  reds.     As  a  rule  these  are 


THE   RASPBERRIES  i8i 

vigorous  growers,  requiring  more  room  than  the  Ameri- 
can red  sorts.  Shaffer  and  Columbia  are  two  of  the 
best  Purple  Raspberries. 

Culture 

The  Red  Raspberries  thrive  best  in  a  rich,  cool,  moist, 
well-drained,  loamy  soil.  On  light  thin  soils  they  are 
likely  to  suffer  from  drouth  before  or  during  the  fruiting 
season,  and  on  soils  too  moist  or  too  rich  in  nitrogen  they 
are  likely  to  grow  to  vine  rather  than  to  fruit.  New 
plants  are  commonly  obtained  from  suckers,  though 
sometimes  from  root-cuttings.  Better  plants  are 
obtained  from  the  latter.  The  plants  are  set  three  feet 
apart  in  rows  about  four  feet  apart.  They  should  be 
set  in  fall  or  very  early  in  spring.  Good  tillage  should 
be  given  to  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds  and  to  conserve 
moisture.  As  soon  as  the  old  canes  have  fruited  they 
should  be  cut  out  and  burned  to  destroy  insects  and 
fungi  and  to  force  the  growth  into  the  new  canes.  With 
free-suckering  varieties  about  half  the  suckers  should  be 
destroyed  when  hoeing.  In  the  northern  states  winter 
protection  is  often  necessary.  Summer  mulching  is  desir- 
able in  home  gardens,  especially  during  the  fruiting  season. 

In  addition  to  removing  the  old  canes  after  fruiting 
the  only  pruning  necessary  is  to  keep  down  superfluous 
suckers  and  cut  off  the  canes  each  spring  at  a  height  of 
about  three  feet.  This  causes  them  to  send  out  side 
branches  and  to  stand  up  better  than  if  left  unpruned. 

Those  varieties  of  Purple-cane  Raspberries  that  form 
new  plants  at  the  tips  of  the  canes  are  to  be  treated  like 
the  black  caps.  Those  that  form  new  plants  from  root 
suckers  are  to  be  treated  like  the  reds. 


SMALL  FRUITS:    BLACKBERRIES  AND   DEWBERRIES 

General  Characters 

How  can  you  tell  a  blackberry  fruit  from  a  raspberry 
fruit? 

How  can  you  tell  a  blackberry  bush  from  a  blackcap 
raspberry  bush? 

How  can  you  tell  a  blackberry  bush  from  a  red  rasp- 
berry bush? 

How  can  you  tell  a  blackberry  bush  from  a  dewberry 
bush? 

Learn  what  varieties  of  blackberries  and  dewberries 
are  grown  in  your  district. 

Mount  pictures  in  your  booklets. 

Fungous  Diseases 

Do  you  find  blackberry  or  dewberry  leaves  affected 
by  an  orange  rust? 

Cut  off  and  burn  such  affected  branches. 


182 


BLACKBERRIES  AND  DEWBERRIES 

When  a  ripe  raspberry  is  picked  the  fruit  separates 
from  the  receptacle.  When  a  ripe  blackberry  is  picked 
the  fruit  remains  upon  the  receptacle.  This  is  the 
most  important  difference  between  the  raspberries  and 
the  blackberries  and  dewberries.  Both  belong  to  the 
great  genus  Rubus,  the  commonly  cultivated  blackberries 
representing  at  least  three  distinct  wild  species  native  to 
America. 

As  a  cultivated  fruit  the  Blackberry  has  been  known 
only  since  about  1840.  Various  varieties  have  been 
introduced  since  that  time,  but  even  yet  there  are  com- 
paratively few  of  these.  The  abundance  of  the  wild 
blackberries,  often  to  be  had  for  the  picking,  has  prob- 
ably been  an  important  reason  why  the  plants  are  so 
little  cultivated.  Well-grown  garden  fruit  of  the  im- 
proved varieties  is,  however,  greatly  superior  to  the 
wild  blackberries. 

Blackberries  normally  reproduce  from  true  root- 
suckers  sent  up  around  the  parent  plant.  When  cut 
off  and  transplanted  these  suckers  thrive  and  new 
plantations  are  commonly  started  with  them.  Plants 
also  grow  readily  from  root-cuttings,  and  this  method 
is  often  used  for  propagating  them.  In  most  northern 
regions  the  transplanting  should  be  done  in  early  spring, 
though  farther  south  it  may  be  done  in  autumn.  The 
newly  set  plants  should  be  cut  back  to  a  height  of  five 
or  six  inches. 

183 


1 84  CROP  PRODUCTION 

Culture 

Blackberries  thrive  best  in  a  moist,  rich  soil,  though  it 
should  not  be  too  rich  in  nitrogen  or  canes  will  grow  at 
the  expense  of  fruit.  They  sucker  so  freely  that  they 
should  be  set  at  least  four  or  five  feet  apart  in  the  rows 
and  the  rows  at  least  six  feet  apart  if  horse  cultivation 
is  to  be  given.  On  bearing  plantations  the  young  canes 
should  be  cut  off  each  season  as  soon  as  they  are  two 
feet  high.  They  will  then  lengthen  out  a  foot  or  more, 
and  will  develop  strong  buds  or  branches  along  their 
sides.  In  this  way  the  crop  of  fruit  the  following  year 
will  be  much  better  than  if  the  canes  are  left  unpruned 
till  fall  or  spring.  The  old  canes  should  be  cut  close  to 
the  ground  as  soon  as  they  have  finished  fruiting.  After 
cutting  they  should  b'e  promptly  burned. 

Winter  protection  by  means  of  a  mulch  of  litter  or 
soil  is  very  desirable  for  blackberry  canes.  With  tender 
varieties  it  is  essential  at  the  north  to  prevent  winter 
kilHng,  the  commonest  trouble  in  growing  this  fruit. 

Dewberries 
Dewberries  are  traiHng  blackberries.  Instead  of  send- 
ing the  main  stalk  up  vertically  it  trails  along  the  ground 
and  sends  up  short  fruiting  branches.  Instead  also  of 
propagating  by  suckers  sent  up  from  the  roots  the  dew- 
berries propagate  by  layers  of  the  prostrate  canes.  They 
are  of  much  less  importance  than  the  blackberries,  but 
are  of  value  in  home  gardens,  giving  a  deHcious  fruit 
that  ripens  earlier  than  the  blackberry.  The  Lucretia 
Dewberry  is  the  best  variety  for  most  fruit-growing 
regions.  On  the  Pacific  Coast  the  Loganberry,  which 
is  closely  related  to  the  Dewberry,  is  a  valuable  fruit. 


BLACKBERRIES   AND   DEWBERRIES       185 

Enemies 
Blackberries  and  dewberries  are  comparatively  free 
from  insect  and  fungous  enemies.  Leaves  and  young 
stems  are  sometimes  attacked  by  the  Orange  Rust. 
Whenever  this  occurs  the  affected  plants  should  be 
promptly  dug  up  and  burned,  both  to  destroy  the  fungus 
and  to  avoid  propagating  new  plants  from  those  which 
are  not  resistant  to  the  attacks  of  the  parasite.  The 
Blackberry  Cane-borer  is  sometimes  troublesome  in 
neglected  plantations,  but  it  is  readily  kept  in  check  if 
the  old  canes  are  cut  out  and  burned  each  summer  as 
soon  as  the  fruiting  season  is  over. 


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Slaminate  Pistillate 


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SMALL  FRUITS:    THE  STRAWBERRY 

The  Flower  and  its  Variations 

Bring  in  several  blossoms  from  different  strawberry 
plants.     Compare  them  with  the  pictures  above. 

Do  you  find  that  some  have  few  or  no  stamens  while 
others  have  many  stamens? 

Watch  the  flowers  outdoors  on  a  sunny  day.  Do  bees 
and  other  insects  visit  them  and  fly  from  one  to  another? 

Hold  a  reading  glass  over  a  flower  which  a  bee  is  visit- 
ing.    Does  any  pollen  get  on  the  legs  and  body? 

Would  this  pollen  be  likely  to  be  carried  to  another 
flower? 

Varieties 

What  varieties  of  strawberries  are  grown  in  your 
district?     Make  a  Hst  under  these  headings: 

Perfect  Imperfect 


Are    any    fall-bearing    strawberries    grown    in    your 
district? 

i86 


STRAWBERRIES 


187 


Strawberry  Leaf-blight 

Find  strawberry  leaves  showing  the  spots  of  this 
disease. 

Can  you  find  similar  spots  on  wild  strawberry  leaves? 

Starting  a  Strawberry  Bed 

Each  pupil  who  can  get  even  a  small  plot  of  land  for 
the  purpose  should  start  a  strawberry  bed. 

Enrich  and  dig  up  the  soil  thoroughly.  Dig  out  and 
burn  all  witch-grass  or  quack-grass  roots. 

Spring  is  the  best  time  to  set  the  plants.  If  the 
main  planting  is  of  an  imperfect  variety,  be  sure  to  set 
about  one-third  as  many  of  a  perfect  variety,  placing 
rows  of  the  perfect  between  those  of  the  imperfect. 


OUACK  GRASS 


THE    STRAWBERRY 

The  Strawberry  is  the  most  popular  of  small  fruits. 
It  is  grown  in  practically  all  home  gardens  worthy  the 
name  and  in  enormous  quantities  in  practically  all 
market  garden  regions.  From  the  time  the  crops  begin 
to  ripen  in  the  southern  states  in  March  until  the  last 
berries  have  matured  in  Nova  Scotia  in  July  the  markets 
of  the  larger  cities  are  suppHed  with  strawberries. 

The  cultivated  Strawberry  has  been  developed  chiefly 
from  a  plant  called  Fragaria  Chiloensis.  It  is  a  native 
of  ChiH,  from  whence  it  was  carried  to  Europe  more  than 
two  centuries  ago.  Various  attempts  have  been  made 
to  improve  our  native  wild  strawberry,  but  with  small 
success. 

Culture 

Strawberries  thrive  best  in  a  cool,  moist,  rich  soil. 
The  young  plants  produced  from  runners  bear  trans- 
planting readily.  In  the  south  they  are  commonly  set 
out  in  autumn,  but  in  the  north  spring  is  the  better 
season.  There  are  many  methods  of  culture,  some 
growers  preferring  to  keep  each  plant  in  a  separate  hill, 
others  preferring  wide  matted  rows,  and  others  narrow 
sparse  rows.  The  more  root  room  and  air  space  each 
plant  has  the  better  will  be  the  fruit  it  produces.  It  is 
better  to  renew  the  plantation  every  two  or  three  years 
than  to  attempt  to  keep  old  plantations  in  bearing 
condition. 


STRAWBERRIES  189 

Hundreds  of  varieties  of  Strawberries  are  now  known. 
New  ones  are  being  introduced  and  old  ones  discarded 
every  year.  To  a  large  extent  successful  varieties  are 
local;  they  may  thrive  in  one  region  and  be  of  little  value 
in  another.  So  the  safest  way  is  to  select  for  the 
main  planting  those  sorts  that  do  best  in  the 
neighborhood. 

Flower  Structure 

In  order  to  succeed  in  strawberry  culture  it  is  impor- 
tant to  know  that  the  flowers  of  many  varieties  possess 
few  or  no  stamens  while  others  possess  an  abundance 
of  them.  This  condition  is  illustrated  in  the  picture 
on  page  186:  on  the  left  the  stamen-bearing  or  perfect  or 
stamina te  blossom  is  represented;  on  the  right  the 
pistil-bearing  or  imperfect  or  pistillate  blossom  is  repre- 
sented. It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  so-called 
staminate  flower  possesses  an  abundance  of  pistils  as 
well  as  stamens;  so  it  is  better  to  call  it  a  perfect 
flower. 

We  know  that  the  pistils  of  flowers  must  be  fertihzed 
by  pollen  if  seeds  and  fruits  are  to  develop.  So  it  is 
evident  that  an  acre  of  strawberries  of  a  variety  having 
only  pistillate  blossoms  would  be  likely  to  yield  very 
Uttle  fruit,  although  an  acre  of  a  variety  having  perfect 
flowers  might  set  fruit  in  abundance.  By  mixing  the 
two  types  of  varieties,  however,  we  can  get  good  results 
because  the  small  bees  which  visit  the  flowers  so  freely 
will  carry  the  pollen  to  practically  all  the  blossoms  and 
thus  help  us  in  the  useful  work  of  poUenizing  both  kinds 
of  flowers.  So  experienced  growers  always  plant  rows 
of  staminate  sorts  along  with  pistillate  varieties. 


1 90  CROP  PRODUCTION 

Fall-Bearing  Varieties 

The  greatest  objection  to  the  Strawberry  has  been  the 
shortness  of  its  season.  In  any  locality  a  month  was 
about  the  limit  of  its  productiveness,  even  if  early,  mid- 
season,  and  late  varieties  were  planted.  There  is  now  a 
good  prospect,  however,  that  this  season  may  be  greatly 
extended  by  the  introduction  of  a  new  type  of  plant  that 
blossoms  through  the  summer. 

A  few  years  ago  a  variety  called  the  Pan-American 
Strawberry  was  introduced.  It  was  claimed  to  bear 
fruit  throughout  the  summer  and  early  autumn.  The 
pubHc  was  sceptical  at  first,  but  those  who  tested  the 
claims  reported  that  they  were  true.  Various  seedlings 
of  this  variety  were  introduced  later  and  proved  to  be 
productive  through  a  long  period.  These  ever-bearing 
strawberries  established  their  claims  so  well  that  in  the 
fall  of  1 910  the  fruit  growers  of  western  New  York  were 
selling  the  berries  in  considerable  quantities.  The  fruit 
found  a  ready  market  at  twenty-five  cents  a  quart. 

Enemies 

The  Leaf-bHght  is  the  most  destructive  fungous  disease 
of  the  strawberry.  It  may  be  found  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  in  almost  any  plantation,  showing  as  distinct  dis- 
colored spots  upon  the  leaflets.  It  is  more  injurious 
on  beds  of  long  standing  than  those  which  are  rotated 
frequently.  In  regions  where  there  is  plenty  of  rain  in 
summer  it  is  sometimes  worth  while  to  mow  the  leaves 
off  after  the  crop  is  picked  and  then  to  burn  the  surface 
over  when  the  leaves  become  dry.  The  fungus  spores 
are  thus  destroyed  and  the  new  crop  of  leaves  that  soon 


STRAWBERRIES 


191 


appears  is  likely  to  show  little  damage  by  the  blight. 
Spraying  with  fungicides  is  also  helpful. 

Various  insects  are  at  times  destructive  to  Strawberry 
plants.  The  Strawberry  Root-louse  attacks  the  roots; 
the  Strawberry  Leaf-roller  attacks  the  foliage;  the 
Strawberry  Weevil  attacks  the  buds  and  stems  of  the 
staminate  varieties.  These  and  other  insects  are  much 
less  likely  to  be  troublesome  where  the  strawberry  beds 
are  fruited  but  a  year  or  two  and  then  promptly  plowed 
under,  another  crop  being  used  in  rotation  next  season. 
This  is  really  the  best  method  to  grow  the  fruit,  so  these 
insect  enemies  are  helpful  in  promoting  good  horticul- 
tural practice. 


rv 

FARM   CROPS 


FARM   CROPS:    INDIAN   CORN   OR   MAIZE 
Corn  Exhibition 

Plan  a  corn  exhibition  at  the  school.  If  there  is  a 
Corn  Club  in  the  school  let  the  Club  take  charge  of  the 
exhibition. 

If  there  is  no  Corn  Club  plan  for  as  good  an  exhibition 
as  you  can  have.  Let  each  pupil  bring  some  of  the  best 
ears  he  can  get.     Arrange  these  by  varieties. 

Have  different  sets  of  pupils  judge  the  exhibition  to  see 
which  should  be  awarded  prizes. 

If  possible  have  the  yield  per  acre  named  in  connec- 
tion with  each  exhibit. 

Scoring  Corn 

Several  good  ears  of  corn. 

Let  each  pupil  score  two  or  three  ears,  using  the  score 
card  on  page  201. 

Germination  Test 

Let  each  pupil  bring  in  one  or  more  ears  of  corn,  the 
best  that  can  be  found. 

Remove  from  each  ear  the  badly  shaped  kernels  at 
195 


196  CROP  PRODUCTION 

the  base  and  tip  and  discard  them.  This  is  the  process 
of  nubbing  the  ear. 

Select  five  kernels  from  each  ear,  one  from  near  each 
end  and  three  from  the  intermediate  spaces,  each  kernel 
coming  from  a  different  row,  so  that  all  sides  of  the  ear 
will  be  represented. 

Let  each  pupil  fill  a  small  paper  flower  pot  with  clean 
dry  sand  to  within  an  inch  of  the  top.  Lay  the  five 
kernels  on  top  of  the  sand,  distributing  them  over  the 
space.  Cover  them  one-half  inch  deep  with  more  sand. 
Insert  a  wooden  or  pasteboard  label  in  each  pot,  printing 
the  number  of  the  ear,  the  name  of  the  pupil,  and  the 
date  on  the  label. 

These  pots  are  now  to  be  watered  and  placed  in  a  sunny 
window  where  they  will  all  have  the  same  conditions  of 
light  and  heat.  A  shallow  pan  or  zinc  tray  to  hold  them 
is  desirable,  but  not  necessary.  In  a  few  days  the  seeds 
will  germinate;  they  should  be  kept  growing  until  the 
Uttle  plants  are  two  or  three  inches  high.  Then  a 
careful  examination  and  record  should  be  made  and  all 
ears  which  show  even  one  poor  kernel  out  of  the  five 
should  be  discarded  for  seed  purposes.  The  seedlings 
will   make   excellent   objects   for   study   and   drawing. 

Instead  of  paper  flower  pots  ordinary  flower  pots  or 
shallow  boxes  of  almost  any  kind  may  be  used,  but  the 
pots  are  simpler  and  easier  to  handle.  They  are  not 
seriously  injured  by  being  used  for  seed  testing. 

Fungous  Diseases 

Have  you  ever  seen  an  ear  of  corn  affected  by  com 
smut?    How  did  it  look? 

Is  smut  more  abundant  on  sweet  corn  than  on  field 


INDIAN  CORN 


197 


com  in   your  district?     Read  pages  228-229  in  Farm 
Friends  and  Farm  Foes. 

Did  you  ever  see  corn  leaves  with  spots  of  orange 
rust  upon  them?     This  is  the  corn  rust. 

Insect  Enemies 

If  the  school  is  in  a  region  where  chinch  bugs  are 
found  let  each  pupil  see  some  of  the  insects  through  a 
lens.  Read  pages  109-111  in  Farm  Friends  and  Farm 
Foes. 

In  spring  cutworms  may  often  be  found  under  boards 
lying  on  the  ground  along  the  borders  of  corn  fields. 
Read  pages  109-111  in  Farm  Friends  and  Farm  Foes. 

Young  corn  plants  that  seem  sickly  are  often  infested 
by  the  root  aphis.  Dig  up  such  plants  carefully  and  see 
if  you  find  the  aphides  and  the  little  brown  ants  that 
attend  them.  Read  pages  92-93  in  Farm  Friends  and 
Farm  Foes.  See  what  other  insects  affecting  corn  you 
can  find  in  your  district. 


CORN 

AVERAGE  ANNUAL 
PRODUCTION 


INDIAN  CORN  OR  MAIZE 

Corn  is  one  of  the  great  gifts  of  the  American  continent 
to  the  food  products  of  the  world.  From  prehistoric 
times  it  has  been  grown  by  the  American  Indians  of 
many  races  in  various  parts  of  both  North  and  South 
America,  so  that  when  European  races  first  appeared 
Com  was  found  to  be  the  staple  food  of  the  natives. 
Its  value  was  at  once  recognized  and  the  plant  was 
introduced  to  other  countries,  but  North  America  has 
always  retained  its  supremacy  in  Corn  growing.  It  now 
^  produces  four  times  as  much  corn  as  all  the  rest  of  the 
world. 

There  is  good  evidence  that  the  Corn  plant  originated 
in  Mexico  as  a  sport  or  hybrid  of  Teosinte,  a  giant  grass 
of  that  region.  When  Columbus  discovered  the  island 
of  Hayti  he  found  that  Corn  was  grown  and  was  called 
*'mahiz"  by  the  Indians.  This  is  the  origin  of  the  word 
Maize,  which  has  been  commonly  applied  to  the  plant 
since.  In  Europe  wheat  is  generally  spoken  of  as  corn, 
but  in  America  the  name  is  always  applied  to  Indian 
Com. 

Classification  and  Structure 

Corn    is    a    giant  grass  with   the  pollen-bearing  or 

staminate  flowers  in  tassels  at  the  upper  end  of  the 

stalk    and    the    seed-bearing   or  pistillate  flowers  in  a 

spike  along  the  side.     The  "silks"  that  project  from 

198 


INDIAN  CORN  199 

the  latter  receive  the  pollen  from  the  former,  thus  fertil- 
izing the  ovules  and  causing  the  development  of  the 
kernels.  The  young  plant  is  furnished  with  two  sorts 
of  roots,  the  regular  feeding  roots  that  grow  from  the 
sprouting  kernel  and  the  adventitious  roots  that  grow 
from  the  stalk  a  Httle  above  ground  and  serve  as  brace 
roots  in  helping  to  keep  the  stalks  erect  as  well  as  feeding 
roots. 

Two  important  types  of  field  corn  are  grown  —  Flint 
Corn  and  Dent  Corn.  Flint  corn  is  most  largely  grown  in 
northern  regions,  while  Dent  corn  is  the  prevailing  type 
in  the  Corn  belt .  Great  improvements  have  been  made 
in  recent  years  in  perfecting  strains  and  varieties  of  both 
types,  the  total  yield  having  been  increased  by  millions 
of  bushels  through  careful  breeding  and  selection  of 
seed. 

In  commercial  value  Corn  is  the  most  important  crop 
grown  in  the  United  States.  More  than  a  hundred 
millions  of  acres  yielding  more  than  two  bilHon  bushels 
are  planted  yearly.  The  money  value  of  the  crop  gen- 
erally exceeds  a  billion  dollars.  More  than  twice  as 
many  acres  of  corn  are  planted  as  of  wheat,  and  about 
four  times  as  many  bushels  of  corn  are  produced. 

Culture 

A  deep,  fertile,  well-drained  soil  with  an  abundance 
of  humus  and  in  good  tilth  is  desirable  for  the  growth  of 
corn.  Sod  land  plowed  the  previous  fall  is  especially 
good,  except  that  it  renders  greater  the  danger  of  injury 
by  white  grubs,  cutworms,  and  other  grass-feeding 
insects.  The  seed  is  planted  as  soon  as  the  soil  warms 
up,  so  that  it  will  germinate  quickly  and  danger  from 


200  CROP   PRODUCTION 

injury  by  frosts  be  over.  The  proverbial  time  for 
planting  corn  is  when  the  oak  leaves  are  as  large  as 
squirrels'  ears.  On  a  large  scale  the  seed  is  commonly 
planted  in  check  rows,  three  and  one-half  feet  apart,  so 
that  the  cultivator  can  be  run  in  both  directions,  thus 
keeping  the  weeds  down  with  little  hand  labor.  As 
the  plants  get  larger  the  cultivation  must  be  shallow  or 
the  roots  near  the  surface  will  be  broken  off.  The 
details  of  culture  and  methods  of  harvesting  vary  with 
the  locahty  and  the  area  planted.  It  is  highly  impor- 
tant that  Corn  be  planted  as  a  part  of  a  system. of  rota- 
tion in  order  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Selecting  and  Testing  Seed  Corn 

During  recent  years  the  importance  of  selecting  and 
testing  carefully  the  seed  corn  to  be  planted  has  been 
more  and  more  appreciated.  By  such  care  the  quality 
and  quantity  of  the  yield  may  be  greatly  increased  and 
consequently  the  profit  of  growing  the  crop  be  also 
increased.  Every  vacant  hill  in  a  field  of  corn  is  a 
distinct  loss  and  anything  that  can  be  done  to  prevent 
such  vacancies  means  a  clear  gain. 

It  is  now  generally  recognized  that  the  only  way  to 
proceed  in  selecting  corn  is  to  choose  the  ear  as  the 
unit.  It  is  preferable  that  such  ears  be  chosen  in  the 
field  when  the  characters  of  the  parent  plant  as  to 
earliness,  height,  mode  of  growth,  and  other  things  may 
be  considered,  but  where  this  is  not  done  the  individual 
ears  should  be  carefully  selected  as  to  their  appearance. 
''These  physical  characteristics  and  properties,"  as 
Professor  Hopkins  says,  ''include  the  length,  circum- 
ference and  shape  of  the  ear  and  of  the  cob;  the  number 


CORN   SCORE    CARD 
Kentucky  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

Name  of  Variety 

Class Sample  Number     . . 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9    10 

Points 
Trueness  to  Type                            15 

Shape  of  Ears                                  10 

- 

— 

— 

Length  of  Ears                                10 

Circumference  of  Ears                     5 

Tips  of  Ears                                       5 

Butts  of  Ears                                     5 

Color  of  Kernels  and  Cobs            10 

Uniformity  of  Kernels                    10 

Shape  of  Kernels                             10 

Spacing  of  Kernels                          10 

Seed  Condition                                10 

Total                                       100 

Remarks: 


202  CROP  PRODUCTION 

of  rows  of  kernels  and  the  number  of  kernels  in  the  row; 
the  weight  and  color  of  the  grain  and  of  the  cob;  and  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  kernels."  Many  score  cards  have 
been  prepared  for  judging  corn  according  to  these  char- 
acteristics: one  such  card  is  printed  on  the  previous 
page. 

The  corn  planted  for  seed  should  come  from  such 
selected  ears.  The  kernels  of  each  ear  should  be  tested 
for  germination  and  growth  before  planting  and  all 
which  are  inferior  in  this  respect  should  be  discarded. 
A  simple  and  interesting  test  may  be  easily  made  in  the 
schoolroom,  in  accordance  with  the  directions  already 
given. 

Pupils  who  have  many  ears  fo  be  tested  at  home  may 
well  make  such  a  testing  box  as  is  shown  in  the  picture 
on  page  203.  It  is  described  by  F.  W.  Howe  in  these 
words : 

"  The  only  materials  needed  are  a  shallow  wooden  tray, 
a  small  handful  of  carpet  tacks,  a  few  yards  of  wrapping 
twine,  sand  enough  to  fill  the  tray,  and  three  or  four 
quarts  of  water.  The  tray  (or  several  of  them)  can 
easily  be  sawed  from  an  empty  soap  or  cracker  box. 
When  finished,  it  should  be  about  i|  inches  deep  inside, 
15  inches  wide,  and  23  inches  long;  but  any  of  these 
dimensions  may  be  varied  slightly.  This  tray  is  divided 
into  small  squares  by  a  checkerboard  lacing  of  twine 
across  the  top.  It  is  convenient  to  have  these  squares 
about  li  inches  on  a  side,  ten  of  them  in  a  row  across  the 
narrow  way  of  the  tray,  and  fifteen  the  other  way. 

*'The  picture  shows  the  general  appearance  of  such  a 
tray  and  the  method  of  lacing  the  twine  back  and  forth 
across  the  tray  and  under  the  tacks.     This  lacing  with 


INDIAN   CORN  203 

the  string  should  not  be  done  until  the  tray  has  been 
loosely  filled  with  dry  sand  heaped  up  a  little  above  its 
top  edge.  Then  the  sand  should  be  scraped  off  with  a 
yardstick,  or  other  straightedge,  even  with  the  top  of 
the  tray.  After  lacing  with  the  string  the  tray  is  then 
ready  for  planting." 


Sand  Tray  for  Testing  Seed  Corn 

Five  kernels  of  corn  from  various  parts  of  one  ear  are 
placed  in  each  square.  All  are  covered  with  sand  and 
left  to  germinate  and  grow  until  about  two  inches  high. 
An  examination  then  readily  shows  which  ears  should 
be  discarded  for  seed. 

The  Rag  Doll  Seed  Tester 

A  simple  way  of  testing  individual  ears  is  described 
by  H.  D.  Hughes  of  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station.  He 
calls  it  the  Rag  Doll  Method. 

"In  preparing  to  make  this  test,  secure  sheeting  of  a 
good  quaUty  and  tear  into  strips  from  8  to  10  inches  wide 
and  3  to  5  feet  long.     Where  these  are  to  be  used  very 


204  CROP  PRODUCTION 

much  it  is  well  to  hem  the  edges  as  otherwise  the  ravel- 
ings  sometimes  disarrange  the  kernels  in  unrolling. 
Each  cloth  should  then  be  marked  with  a  heavy  pencil, 
first,  lengthwise  in  the  middle  and  then  crosswise,  as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  making  squares 
about  3  inches  wide.  Nimiber  the  squares  as  shown  in 
the  illustration  also. 

^'Moisten  one  of  these  cloths  and  lay  it  out  on  a  board 
of  convenient  size  in  front  of  the  ears  which  are  to  be 
tested.  Remove  six  kernels  from  ear  No.  i  and  place 
in  the  square  No.  i  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of  the 
cloth.  Take  six  kernels  from  ear  No.  2  and  place  in 
square  No.  2  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner,  ear  No.  3 
in  the  next  square  on  the  left-hand  side,  and  ear  No.  4 
in  a  corresponding  position  on  the  right  side.  When 
the  cloth  has  been  filled  begin  at  the  upper  end  with 
ears  Nos.  i  and  2,  etc.,  and  roll  the  cloth  up.  Since  the 
cloth  is  moistened  the  kernels  will  not  push  out  of  place. 
If  a  small  irregular  shaped  piece  of  wood  or  some  other 
substance  is  used  as  a  core  in  rolling,  a  more  uniform 
germination  may  be  secured.  When  the  rolling  of  the 
cloth  has  been  finished,  tie  a  string  rather  loosely  about 
the  middle  of  the  roll;  or  better  still,  use  a  rubber  band, 
and  number  this  roll  No.  i.  Then  proceed  with  roll  No.  2 
in  the  same  way.  As  many  rolls  may  be  used  as  are 
necessary  to  contain  the  corn  which  one  has  to  test. 
From  20  to  50  ears  can  be  tested  in  each  roll,  depending 
upon  the  length. 

"After  the  rolls  have  been  filled  they  should  be  placed 
in  a  bucket  of  water  where  they  may  remain  for  from 
2  to  18  hours,  depending  upon  the  preference  of  the 
operator.    At  the  end  of  this  time  pour  off  the  water 


INDIAN   CORN  205 

and  turn  the  bucket  up-side-down  over  the  rolls  —  or  a 
common  dry  goods  box  may  be  used  for  this  purpose. 
A  couple  of  small  pieces  of  wood  should  preferably  be 
laid  under  the  rolls  and  one  edge  of  the  pail  should  be 
lifted  from  one-half  to  one  inch  in  order  to  give  sufficient 
ventilation.  ...  At  the  end  of  five  days  the  kernels 
should  be  ready  to  read. 


Rag  Doll  Seed  Tester 

This  may  be  made  at  home  or  bought  of  a  hardware  dealer  for  ten  cents 

"Depending  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  ears,  select, 
first  either  roll  No.  i  or  the  last  roll  filled.  This  cloth 
will  be  unrolled  in  front  of  the  ears  which  are  represented. 
Examine  all  kernels  carefully.  In  all  cases  in  which 
six  kernels  are  not  strong  in  germination  the  ear  should 
be  thrown  away." 

Fungous  Diseases 

For  a  crop  that  has  been  grown  in  such  quantities  over 
so  large  an  area  and  during  so  long  a  period,  Indian  corn 
is  remarkably  free  from  fungous  diseases.  Rust  and 
Smut  are  practically  the  only  widespread  diseases  and 
neither  is  injurious  to  any  great  degree.  Corn  Rust  is 
indeed  of  scarcely  any  practical  importance,  while  the 


2o6 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


CoKN  Smut 


Smut  becomes  appreciably  destructive  only  when  proper 
crop  rotation  is  neglected. 

Com  Smut  is  familiar  to  every  farmer  and  most  gar- 
deners; for  it  is  especially  troublesome  in  gardens  where 
sweet  corn  is  grown  year  after  year.     The  disease  attacks 

both  ears  and  tassels, 
generally  the  former. 
It  first  shows  on  the 
ears  as  a  white,  mal- 
formed mass,  repre- 
senting usually  only 
a  portion  of  the  ker- 
nels. The  mass  soon 
becomes  darker  and 
finally  develops  into  a  blackish  powder  that  consists  of 
millions  of  tiny  spores.  The  disease  is  spread  by  these 
spores  which  infest  young  plants.  The  pulHng  and 
burning  of  diseased  plants  and  regular  crop  rotations 
are  effective  preventives. 

Insect  Enemies 

The  corn  plant  has  been  much  less  fortunate  in  the 
case  of  its  insect  enemies  than  in  that  of  its  fungous 
foes.  A  host  of  sucking  and  biting  insects  prey  upon 
root,  stalk,  leaf,  and  ear,  often  causing  enormous  losses. 

The  Com  Root-worms  are  among  the  most  serious  of 
these  pests:  there  are  two  species,  the  Northern  and  the 
Southern.  The  Northern  Corn  Root-worm  infests  most 
of  the  corn  belt.  A  small  green  beetle  lays  eggs  in  the 
com  fields  in  autumn.  These  eggs  hatch  in  spring  into 
slender  worms  that  attack  the  roots,  and  mature  into 
another  generation  of  green  beetles  during  the  summer. 


INDIAN  CORN  207 

The  Southern  Com  Root-worm  is  the  more  destructive 
in  the  south.  The  adult  is  a  small  yellow  beetle  with 
black  spots  that  feeds  upon  a  great  variety  of  succulent 
plants.  Rotation  of  the  crop  is  an  efficient  remedy  for 
the  northern  species  and  is  helpful  for  the  southern. 

Corn  roots  are  often  attacked  by  the 
Corn  Root  Aphis,  which  is  always  asso- 
ciated in  an  interesting  way  with  a  small 
brown  ant  that  burrows  channels  in  the 
soil  beside  the  roots  to  make  room  for 
the  aphides.  The  latter  suck  the  juices 
of  the  roots,  causing  a  dwarfing  of  the 
plants.     Rotation  is  the  best  preventive. 

Corn  is  a  favorite  food  plant  for  the 
notorious  Chinch  Bug,  one  of  the  most  destructive 
American  insects.  This  pest  attacks  any  of  the  grain 
crops  and  when  abundant  often  ruins  whole  fields.  The 
adult  insects  pass  the  winter  in  the  shelter  of  leaves, 
grass  roots,  boards,  stones,  or  other  protection  and 
scatter  to  grain  fields  in  spring.  Eggs  are  laid  upon 
the  grain  plants,  several  hundred  being  laid  by  one  bug, 
and  the  little  bugs  that  soon  hatch  suck  the  sap  from 
leaves  and  stalks.  They  molt  several  times  before  be- 
coming full  grown  in  early  summer.  They  then  lay  eggs 
for  a  second  brood  more  abundant  than  the  first.  Burn- 
ing over  the  winter  quarters  of  the  pests  is  one  of  the 
most  effective  remedies. 

The  Cutworm  is  proverbial  as  an  enemy  to  corn. 
Witness  the  old  rhyme  about  planting: 

One  for  the  cutworm, 

One  for  the  crow, 
One  for  the  blackbird, 

And  three  to  grow. 


2o8  CROP  PRODUCTION 

There  are  at  least  a  dozen  kinds  of  Cutworms  that 
may  attack  corn  and  their  injuries  are  often  very  serious. 
They  usually  live  through  the  winter  as  half -grown  larvae, 
so  they  are  ready  to  devour  almost  any  green  and  suc- 
culent plant  when  spring  comes.  They  travel  at  night 
from  hill  to  hill,  cutting  off  the  stalks  just  above  the 
ground,  and  bury  themselves  in  the  soil  by  day. 
They  soon  become  full  grown  as  larvae,  burrow  into  the 
soil,  and  change  to  pupae,  to  change  again  a  little  later 
to  night-flying  moths  about  an  inch  long.  These  moths 
are  attracted  to  grasslands  to  lay  their  eggs,  and  so  it 
happens  that  com  on  sod  land  is  much  more  likely  to 
suffer  from  cutworm  attack  than  that  which  has  been  in 
cultivated  crops. 

Many  other  insects  are  at  times  injurious  to  corn. 
Wire  worms  attack  the  roots,  Army- worms  and  grass- 
hoppers attack  the  leaves.  Corn-worms  and  Ear-worms 
attack  the  ears.  These  and  other  pests  are  more  or  less 
local,  however,  and  like  most  of  the  other  corn  enemies 
are  least  injurious  where  good  agriculture  brings  clean 
culture  and  regular  rotations. 


Nymph  Aduk 

GRASSHOPPER 


WH  EAT 

AVERAGE  ANNUAL 
PRODUCTION 


^      GRAIN   CROPS:    WHEAT 
Small  Grain  Exhibit 

Have  a  little  exhibit  of  small  grains,  especially  wheat, 
rye,  barley,  and  oats.  Let  pupils  bring  grains  or  heads 
so  far  as  they  can.     Mount  pictures  from  seed  catalogues. 

Let  each  pupil  learn  to  recognize  each  grain  so  he  can 
name  kernel  or  head.  After  the  exhibition  has  been  on 
a  few  days  have  a  recognition  test  applied  to  each  pupil. 

Germination  Test 

Ten  seeds  for  each  pupil. 

Determine  percentage  of  germination. 

Draw  a  seed  after  germination. 

Growing  Seedlings 

Grow  seedlings  in  window  box  coUe'ctively  or  in  flower 
pots  individually  till  they  are  a  few  inches  high. 

Draw  when  they  are  an  inch  high;  also  when  three 
inches  high. 

209 


2IO  CROP  PRODUCTION 

Crop  Rotation 

Learn  what  crop  rotations  are  practiced  by  local 
wheat  growers. 

Which  rotations  seem  to  bring  the  largest  yields  per 
acre? 

Fungous  Diseases 

Which  wheat  rusts  can  you  find  in  your  locality?  If 
both  are  present  which  is  more  destructive?  Read 
pages  235-237,  Farm  Friends  and  Farm  Foes. 

Are  some  varieties  of  wheat  more  subject  to  rust  than 
others  in  your  region?  What  varieties  are  most  nearly 
rust  proof? 

Can  you  find  both  kinds  of  Wheat  Smut  in  your 
locality?    Which  is  more  destructive? 

Do  any  farmers  in  your  region  treat  their  seed  to 
prevent  Smut?    If  so  what  is  the  result? 

If  the  loss  from  wheat  diseases  in  your  township  is 
ten  per  cent  of  the  crop,  what  is  the  money  loss? 

Hessian  Fly 

Inquire  of  farmers  who  grow  wheat  whether  the  crop 
has  been  injured  by  Hessian  flies  in  recent  years. 

If  any  field  is  now  infested  bring  specimens  of  injured 
stalks  to  school  so  that  each  pupil  can  see  the  insects. 

If  examples  of  the  flax-seed  stage  are  found,  keep  alive 
in  a  covered  jelly  glass  or  similar  receptacle  to  rear  the 
adult  flies. 

Learn  what  preventive  measures  are  in  use  against  the 
Hessian  fly.  Read  pages  123-124,  Farm  Friends  and 
Farm  Foes. 


WHEAT  211 

Other  Insects 

What  other  insect  enemies  of  wheat  occur  in  your 
district? 

Do  cutworms,  grasshoppers,  or  leaf-hoppers  cause 
much  injury? 

Look  in  the  wheat  fields  for  the  wheat  bulb  worm, 
the  joint  worm,  or  the  wheat  midge. 


WHEAT 

From  time  immemorial  Wheat  has  been  grown  for 
human  food.  It  has  always  been  the  staple  food  of  the 
most  highly  civilized  peoples  and  it  seems  likely  to  con- 
tinue to  hold  its  high  place  for  ages  to  come.  Bread, 
the  finished  product  of  the  Wheat  kernels,  is  universally 
recognized  as  the  staff  of  life. 

In  all  their  wanderings  over  the  habitable  globe  the 
European  races  have  carried  the  Wheat  plant  with  them. 
Wherever  they  have  stayed  the  seed  has  been  sown,  and 
if  the  conditions  permitted  the  grain  has  been  harvested. 
Consequently  the  plant  has  been  subjected  to  innumer- 
able changes  of  soil,  climate,  and  culture,  and  it  has 
responded  to  those  conditions  in  such  a  way  that  many 
well-marked  types  of  varieties  have  been  developed  and 
are  now  grown  in  America.  They  are  grouped  first  into 
Winter  Wheats,  sown  in  autumn  and  living  over  winter 
as  young  plants,  and  Spring  Wheats,  sown  in  spring  and 
harvested  the  succeeding  summer. 

These  in  turn  are  subdivided  thus: 
Winter  wheats:  Soft,  semi-hard,  hard 
Spring  wheats:   Soft,  hard,  Durum  or  Macaroni 

In  general  each  of  these  types  is  suited  to  certain  great 
regions  where  it  is  chiefly  grown.  The  hard  wheats  are 
especially  prized  for  making  flour,  while  the  very  hard 
Durum  or  Macaroni  wheats  are  utilized  for  making 
macaroni. 


214  CROP  PRODUCTION 


Culture 


Wheat  is  universally  grown  as  a  field  crop  with  the 
seed  drilled  or  broadcasted  over  the  soil.  The  details 
of  time  of  planting,  kind  of  soil,  fertilizers  and  place  in 
the  rotation  differ  with  the  locality  and  the  type,  but  in 
general  Wheat  is  a  crop  for  extensive  rather  than  inten- 
sive farming  methods.  The  processes  of  preparing  the 
land,  seeding  and  harvesting  and  threshing  are  done  to 
best  advantage  on  a  large  scale  by  expensive  machinery. 
So  the  crop  is  especially  adapted  to  the  immense  fields 
of  the  fertile  west  and  northwest,  where  the  so-called 
bonanza  farms  are  the  prevailing  type.  This  does  not 
mean,  however,  that  Wheat  cannot  be  profitably  grown 
on  a  smaller  scale  in  other  regions,  for  it  is  recognized  as 
one  of  the  most  profitable  crops  for  the  general  farmer 
over  a  large  part  of  the  United  States. 

To  be  grown  successfully  over  a  considerable  period  of 
years  Wheat  must  be  fitted  into  a  rotation  with  other 
crops,  preferably  with  a  series  in  which  clover,  cowpeas, 
or  some  other  nitrogen-gathering  legume  is  included. 
In  the  great  diversity  of  regions  in  which  Wheat  is 
grown  in  America  there  are  many  different  rotations 
of  crops  that  include  it.  Some  of  the  most  important 
are  these: 

Potatoes,  Wheat,  Clover 

Corn,  Wheat,  Clover 

Com,  Cowpeas,  Wheat,  Clover 

Com,  Oats,  Wheat,  Clover 

Potatoes,  Oats,  Wheat,  Clover 
Sugar-beets,    Wheat,    Alfalfa     (continuing     several 
seasons). 


WHEAT  215 

Improving  Varieties 
A  great  deal  of  attention  has  been  given  during  recent 
years  to  improving  Wheat  by  breeding  and  selection. 
Many  new  varieties  of  great  value  have  been  obtained 
as  well  as  greatly  improved  strains  of  the  older  varieties. 
In  some  extremely  valuable  work  conducted  by  the 
Minnesota  Experiment  Station  under  the  direction  of 
Professor  W.  M.  Hays  an  increased  yield  of  from  two  to 
nearly  five  bushels  of  grain  per  acre  was  obtained  in  a 
very  few  years.  Large  heavy  kernels  are  best  for  seeding, 
and  an  interesting  machine  has  lately  been  devised  for  sep- 
arating these  from  the  lighter  kernels.  The  grain  is  shot 
from  a  revolving  cylinder  in  such  a  way  that  the  centrifu- 
gal force  sends  the  heaviest  grains  farther  than  the  others. 

Fungous  Diseases 

It  is  not  surprising  that  so  important  a  crop  as  wheat, 
gown  from  time  immemorial  in  so  many  parts  of  the 
world,  should  have  numerous  natural  enemies.  Para- 
sitic fungi  of  several  kinds  and  insects  in  great  variety 
have  found  in  various  parts  of  the  wheat  plants  favorable 
opportunities  for  food  and  growth.  The  yearly  loss  due 
to  these  enemies  amounts  to  many  millions  of  dollars,  a 
large  proportion  of  which  might  be  saved  by  the  intelli- 
gent apphcation  of  the  best  agricultural  methods. 

Two  distinct  species  of  rust  fungi  attack  wheat  —  the 
Black  Stem  Rust  and  the  Orange  Leaf  Rust.  The  first 
is  the  most  destructive,  causing  a  shriveling  of  the  wheat 
kernels  that  results  in  greatly  reduced  yields.  The 
second  is  more  universal  in  its  distribution,  being  found 
in  practically  every  wheat  field  every  year,  but  it  does 
less  damage  because  it  affects  kernels  less  seriously.     The 


2l6 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


most  promising  methods  of  preventing  both  these 
diseases  is  that  of  planting  rust-resisting  varieties, 
many  of  which  are  now  known. 

Two  distinct  species  of  Smut 
fungi  attack  wheat  heads  —  the 
Bunt  or  Foul-smeUing  Smut  and 
the  Loose  Smut.  The  Bunt  in- 
fests only  the  wheat  kernels,  so 
that  it  does  not  show  as  conspicu- 
ously in  the  heads  as  the  Loose 
Smut,  which  infests  both  kernels 
and  chaff.  Both  of  these  diseases 
are  common  in  North  America  and 
often  cause  the  loss  of  millions  of 
dollars  a  year. 

Hessian  Fly 

The  Hessian  Fly  is  the  most  de- 
structive special  insect  enemy  of 
the  wheat  crop,  though  at  times 
greater  damage  may  be  done  by 
the  Chinch  Bugs  and  Army-Worms 
which  attack  other  grains  in  addition  to  wheat.  Good 
authorities  estimate  that  the  average  annual  loss  of 
wheat  due  to  the  Hessian  Fly  is  ten  per  cent,  or  about 
40,000,000  bushels.  Of  course  the  damage  at  times  is 
much  greater  than  this  in  certain  regions  where  the  crop 
maybe  reduced  one-half  or  more,  if  not  completely  ruined. 
It  occurs  practically  throughout  the  principal  wheat  re- 
gions of  the  United  States.  It  is  called  the  Hessian 
Fly  because  it  is  supposed  that  it  was  first  brought  to 
America  by  the  Hessian  soldiers  during  the  Revolution. 


Hessian  Fly 

I.  Infested  plant  2.  Eggs  on  leaf 


WHEAT 


217 


In  winter  wheat  regions  damage  by  the  Hessian  Fly 
may  often  be  prevented  by  late  seeding,  although  the 
time  when  this  is  effect- 
ive varies  with  the  lo- 
caHty  and  the  season. 
Many  of  the  insects  in 
the  flax-seed  stage  pass 
the  summer  in  wheat 
stubble.  These  may  be 
destroyed  by  burning 
over  the  stubble  fields  or 
plowing  deeply  and  roll- 
ing. An  adequate  sys- 
tem of  crop  rotation  is 
very  helpful  in  prevent- 
ing outbreaks,  while  the 
selection  of  varieties 
having  strong  stems  or 
the  habit    of    tillering 

freely  is  helpful  in  pre-  s-  Pupa.  Magnified. 

venting  damage  when  the  pest  is  present.    The  adult  Hes- 
sian Fly  is  shown  much  magnified  in  the  picture  below. 


Hessian  Fly 

.  Larva.    4.  Puparium  or  "flaxseed.' 
5.  Pupa. 


OATS 

AVERAGE  ANNUAL 

PRODUCTION 
DECIDE f/ 399  -/90d) 

W  At/IUOAS  OF  BUSHELS  ^ 


GRAIN   CROPS:     OATS 

Types  of  Heads 

Let  pupils  bring  to  school  good  heads  of  oats  grown  at 
home.     Get  the  name  of  the  variety  when  possible. 
Arrange  these  oats  heads  into  two  groups: 

Spreading  or  open  Panicle        Banner  or  Side  Panicle 


Seed  Testing 

Twenty  seeds  for  each  pupil. 

Place  in  germination  box  and  determine  percentage  of 
viable  seeds. 

218 


OATS 


219 


Varieties 

Learn  what  varieties  of  oats  are  grown  in  your  district. 
Let  pupils  find  out  facts  to  put  on  the  blackboard 
under  these  headings: 

Yields  of  Oats  per  Acre 
Highest    .  Lowest  Average 


Enemies 

Learn  which  of  these  diseases  occur  in  the  school 
district:  loose  smut,  stem  rust. 
Do  local  farmers  treat  the  oats  to  prevent  smut? 
Are  oats  plants  troubled  by  any  insect  enemies? 


OATS 

Oats  rank  with  wheat  and  corn  in  the  number  of 
bushels  grown  in  the  world.  Thus  in  1904  there  were 
produced  on  all  the  continents 

Oats,  3,336,179,00c  bushels 
Corn,  3,058,021,000  bushels 
Wheat,  3,162,340,000  bushels 
In  the  case  of  Oats  about  one-third  of  the  total  yield  was 
grown  in  America  and  nearly  two-thirds  in  Europe,  the 
total  yield  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Australia  being  less  than 
100,000,000  bushels.     On  the  other  hand  more  than  a 
billion  bushels  were  grown  in  Russia  alone,  nearly  as 
much  as  in  all  the  rest  of  Europe. 

During  the  decade  before  1909  the  average  annual 
production  of  Oats  in  the  United  States  was  nearly 
900,000,000  bushels.  Illinois,  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and 
Minnesotc  were  the  four  leading  states  in  Oat  produc- 
tion, these  and  Nebraska  producing  more  than  half  the 
total  crop.  The  diagram  on  page  218  shows  the  pro- 
duction of  each  state  during  the  period  named. 

Classification 

The  numerous  varieties  of  Oats  are  classified  in  various 
ways.  One  of  the  most  convenient  of  these  has  to  do 
with  the  position  of  the  spikelets  on  the  panicle.  In  one 
group  the  spikelets  spread  from  the  central  stalk  in  all 
directions:   these  are  the  Spreading  or  the  Open-panicle 


222  CROP  PRODUCTION 

Oats;  in  the  other  group  the  spikelets  are  on  one  side: 
these  are  the  Mane  or  Banner  or  Side-panicle  Oats.  The 
first  group  contains  the  most  popular  varieties. 

Culture 

Oats  are  cool-season  plants.  They  thrive  best  in  cool 
weather  and  a  moist  soil.  Consequently  they  are  most 
successful  in  northern  regions,  where  they  form  one  of 
the  most  important  elements  in  farm  rotations.  They 
should  be  planted  early  in  well-prepared  soil,  the  seed 
being  covered  an  inch  deep.  The  plants  come  up 
quickly  and  grow  rapidly,  maturing  early  in  summer. 
A  fair  yield  in  the  northern  states  is  fifty  bushels  an 
acre,  although  the  average  is  much  below  this. 

A  distinct  advance  in  the  growing  of  oats  in  the  south- 
ern states  has  been  brought  about  by  the  introduction 
of  the  ''open  furrow"  method  of  seeding.  The  seed  is 
sown  in  the  fall  on  land  which  has  been  plowed  and 
harrowed,  being  drilled  in  the  bottom  of  furrows  four 
inches  deep  made  by  a  special  machine.  The  young 
plants  get  well  started  before  winter  and  the  furrow  is 
gradually  filled  in  by  the  alternate  freezing  and  thawing 
of  the  soil.  The  percentage  of  winter  kiUing  is  thus 
greatly  reduced  and  the  roots  are  so  far  down  that  they 
are  better  able  to  withstand  the  droughts  of  spring  or 
early  summer. 

Enemies 

The  Loose  Smut  is  the  most  destructive  fungous 
disease  of  oats.  Its  life-history  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
Loose  Smut  of  Wheat,  the  spores  being  attached  to  the 
seed  and  entering  the  seedling  soon  after  germination. 


OATS 


223 


The  formalin  treatment  is  an  efficient  remedy,  and  on  a 
given  farm  will  prevent  serious  loss  if  the  seed  oats  are 
treated  every  second  or  third  season.  The  necessity  of 
this  treatment  is  indicated  by  the  statement  that  the 
annual  loss  in  the  United  States 
due  to  the  disease  has  been  esti- 
mated at  nearly  $20,000,000. 

Not  infrequently  the  Stem  Rust 
of  Oats  does  a  great  deal  mere 
damage  in  a  given  region  than 
the  Smut.  This  is  similar  to  the 
Stem  Rust  of  Wheat,  having  both 
a  black  and  a  red  stage  and  is 
most  destructive  in  wet  seasons. 
The  selection  of  resistant  or  early 
maturing  varieties  is  the  only 
method  of  prevention.  In  the 
southern  states  the  kind  called 
Texas  Rust-proof  is  the  most  re- 
sistant, while  in  the  north  the 
White  Russian  has  a  similar 
reputation. 

The  growing  crop  of  oats  is  subject  to  attack  by 
Chinch  bugs,  army  worms,  and  various  other  grain  and 
grass-feeding  insects,  but  there  are  few  special  insects 
affecting  oats. 


AVERAGE  ANNUAL 
PRODUCTION 
'0899- 


FORAGE   CROPS:     GRASSES 

Exhibit  of  Grasses  {Summer  or  Autumn) 

Plan  a  little  exhibit  of  the  common  forage  grasses. 
It  should  be  easy  to  get  most  of  these : 

Timothy  Witch  Grass 

Kentucky  Blue-grass  Orchard  Grass 

Red  Top  Barn  yard  Grass 

Place  in  bottles  of  water  if  the  specimens  are  freshly 
cut,  or  mount  on  stiff  paper  if  they  are  dry. 

Find  out  which  kinds  are  most  largely  grown  for  hay 
in  the  district. 

Have  a  recognition  test  after  the  plants  have  been  on 
exhibition  for  a  few  days. 


GRASSES 

The  food  for  domestic  animals  derived  from  pasture 
and  hay  crops  is  one  of  the  most  important  items  in  the 
total  of  American  crops.  The  average  annual  produc- 
tion of  hay  alone  is  about  sixty  miUion  tons,  while  the 
food  derived  from  pastures  is  almost  beyond  calculation. 
The  various  grasses  are  the  most  important  hay  crops, 
although  they  are  often  combined  with  various  clovers 
and  in  some  regions  are  largely  replaced  by  alfalfa. 
Timothy  or  Herd's  Grass,  Kentucky  Blue-grass,  and 
Red  Top  are  most  notable  as  hay  and  pasture  grasses. 

Timothy  or  Herd's  Grass 

Timothy  or  Herd's  Grass  (Phleum  pratense)  is  uni- 
versally recognized  as  the  great  hay  grass  for  American 
farms.  It  is  easily  established  and  easily  destroyed 
when  land  is  plowed  for  another  crop.  It  yields  heavily. 
The  hay  is  of  high  food  value  and  is  rehshed  by  both 
horses  and  cattle.  Seed  sown  this  year  will  produce  a 
good  crop  during  the  next  two  years  and  also  in  subse- 
quent years  if  the  meadow  receives  proper  top  dressings. 
Red  clover  is  commonly  mixed  with  Timothy  in  planting. 

Interesting  and  remarkable  results  have  lately  been 
secured  in  the  breeding  of  Timothy  plants  at  Cornell 
University.  Variations  as  to  the  habits  of  growth, 
earliness,  yield  of  leaf  and  seed,  and  other  characteriza- 
tions have  been  found,  and  definite  progress  has  been 

225 


226  CROP   PRODUCTION 

made   in   establishing   numerous   varieties    for   special 
purposes. 

Blue-grass  and  Red  Top 

While  Timothy  as  now  grown  is  preeminently  a  hay 
plant  and  only  secondarily  a  pasture  grass  the  reverse 
is  true  of  Kentucky  Blue-grass  {Poa  pratensis),  famous 
the  world  over  as  the  best  basis  for  a  productive  pasture. 
It  is  early  and  succulent  and  continues  growth  well 
through  the  season,  though  likely  to  be  checked  during 
the  hot  dry  months  of  summer.  It  is  especially  valu- 
able for  pastures  because  of  the  way  it  spreads  out  from 
a  single  plant,  being  strongly  stoloniferous.  In  conse- 
quence it  takes  possession  of  the  soil  and  crowds  out 
weaker  plants. 

As  a  meadow  grass  Red  Top  {Agrostis  alba)  ranks 
next  to  Timothy  and  on  wet  or  sour  soils  it  is  to  be 
preferred  to  it.  It  gives  a  good  crop  of  hay  the  season 
after  sowdng  and  will  thrive  under  conditions  in  which 
Timothy  fails.  It  is  strongly  stoloniferous  and  may  be 
used  to  advantage  in  seeding  down  the  pasturage. 

Other  Grasses 

Orchard  Grass,  Meadow  Fescue,  Canada  Blue-grass, 
and  Barn-yard  Grass  or  Japanese  Millet  are  also  grown 
more  or  less  in  the  northern  states.  In  the  southern 
states  Bermuda  Grass  is  of  especial  value  for  pastures 
and  Johnson  Grass  for  hay.  The  latter  has  the  same 
rooting  habits  as  Witch  Grass  and  so  is  very  difficult  to 
eradicate  when  once  estabHshed.  Consequently  it  can- 
not be  used  to  advantage  in  a  system  of  crop  rotation. 

Meadows  and  pastures  of  long  standing  become  sod 


GRASSES 


227 


bound,  so  that  the  grass  does  not  thrive  and  other  stronger 
plants  begin  to  come  in.  Daisies,  wild  carrots,  plantains, 
flea-banes,  hawk  weeds,  and  many  other  weeds  com- 
monly infest  such  grass  fields.  Their  presence  is  an 
indication  of  the  need  of  a  renewal  through  plowing  and 
rotation  —  the  most  effective  method  of  dealing  with 
weeds  in  grasslands. 


'-^• 

1       1 

1^^^^"^%:=^'' 

\T 

\]    1 

. 

LEGUMINOUS   CROPS:   THE   CLOVERS 

Exhibit  of  Legumes  {Summer  or  Autumn) 

Plan  a  little  exhibit  of  as  many  kinds  of  clovers  and 
related  plants  as  can  be  found  growing  in  the  neighbor- 
hood.    Most  locaHties  should  show  these: 
Alsike  Clover  Alfalfa 

Red  Clover  Sweet  Clover 

White  Clover  Pussy  Clover 

Place  two  or  three  blossom-bearing  stems  in  a  bottle 
of  water.  Put  a  plainly  printed  label  by  each.  After 
two  or  three  days  remove  the  labels  and  have  a  recogni- 
tion test. 

In  case  of  doubt  about  the  name  of  any  plant  brought 
in  let  the  pupil  send  it  to  the  State  Experiment  Station 
for  identification. 

Red  Clover 
Seed  Inspection 

Examine  through  a  lens  one  hundred  seeds  of  red 
clover  from  the  stocks  offered  for  sale  locally. 

See  how  many  are  really  clover  seeds  and  how  many 
are  seeds  of  other  plants. 

228 


THE   CLOVERS  229 

Seed  Germination 

Determine  the  per  cent  of  viability  of  twenty-five  seeds 
placed  in  germination  without  preliminary  treatment, 
allowing  seven  days  for  germination. 

Treat  twenty-five  other  seeds  from  the  same  lot  with 
sulphuric  acid  for  twenty  minutes.  Determine  the 
percentage  of  viability  and  compare  quickness  of  germi- 
nation with  that  of  the  untreated  seeds. 

Root  Nodules 

Dig  up  a  thrifty  clover  plant  carefully.  Wash  the 
soil  from  the  roots.  See  the  little  yellowish  nodules  on 
them. 

Make  a  drawing  of  a  root  showing  some  of  the  nodules. 

Read  pages  275-281,  Farm  Friends  and  Farm  Foes. 

Clover  Soils 

Bring  to  school  a  half  pint  of  soil  in  which  clover 
thrives. 

Bring  also  a  half  pint  of  soil  from  a  field  in  which 
clover  does  not  grow  —  one  in  a  low  situation  or  an  old 
pasture  or  meadow. 

Test  each  with  blue  and  red  litmus  paper,  simply 
covering  the  paper  with  the  damp  soil. 

If  the  soil  is  sour  the  blue  litmus  paper  will  turn  red. 

Clover  does  not  thrive  in  sour  soils. 

Now  mix  a  little  powdered  lime  with  the  sour  soil, 
stirring  it  up  thoroughly  and  then  letting  it  stand  for  a 
day  or  two.  Then  test  again.  What  effect  does  lime 
have  upon  a  sour  soil? 


THE  CLOVERS 

Until  recently  Red  Clover  was  the  most  important 
leguminous  crop  known  to  American  agriculture.  It  is 
still  so  in  the  eastern  United  States,  but  in  western  regions 
it  has  been  eclipsed  by  Alfalfa,  which  seems  likely  also  to 
largely  supplant  the  clover  in  the  east.  Two  important 
forms  of  Red  Clover  are  grown:  the  Common  or  June 
Red  Clover  (Trifolium  pratense)  and  the  Mammoth 
Red  Clover  {YdLUQiy  perenne).  The  former  is  smaller, 
ripens  earlier,  and  dies  sooner  than  the  latter,  which  by 
contrast  is  larger,  ripens  later,  and  lives  longer. 

Two  other  important  clovers  are  the  Crimson  and  the 
Alsike  Clover.  The  former  is  largely  used  as  a  cover 
crop  in  orchards  and  the  latter  as  a  forage  crop  for 
meadows  and  temporary  pastures.  Neither  of  them, 
however,  is  so  largely  grown  as  Alfalfa  or  the  Red  Clovers. 

Clovers  in  Rotations 

The  Clovers,  especially  the  Red  varieties,  have  long 
been  recognized  as  an  essential  crop  for  any  good  system 
of  crop  rotation.  Long  before  the  way  in  which  the 
legumes  are  able  to  collect  nitrogen  from  the  air  and 
add  it  to  the  soil  was  understood,  it  was  known  that 
they  did  increase  the  supply  of  nitrogen.  So  they  were 
largely  grown  to  plow  under  as  green  manures  and  they 
still  hold  a  very  important  place  in  this  respect. 

Clover  will  not  thrive  upon  an  acid  soil.  The  nodule- 
230 


THE   CLOVERS 


231 


i     "'.*■'  ■,*»  ^4 

f  -    1 

r''^====^^""^'^'^^ 

-— ^1 

1    NO  NITROGEN    1 

'^^0  fi,:ROGEN 

1 

1    ^0  BACTERIA    I 

bACTL'RiA  ._ 

1 

Red  Clover:  Effect  of  Bacteria 


forming  bacteria  upon  which  their  growth  largely 
depends  are  unable  to  develop  in  such  a  soil.  Conse- 
quently it  is  often 
necessary  to  add  Hme 
in  order  to  get  Clover 
to  grow,  and  very  often 
it  is  desirable  to  inocu- 
late the  soil  with  the 
nodule-forming  bac- 
teria. 

Enemies 

Where  Clover  i  s 
utilized  as  a  part  of  a 
plan  of  crop  rotation 
that  involves  plowing 

it  under  after  one  season's  crop  has  been  removed 
it  is  comparatively  Httle  injured  by  insect  pests. 
When  it  is  grown  longer,  however,  such  enemies  are 
more  likely  to  multiply  and  prove  destructive.  Two 
of  these  pests  attack  the  roots :  the  Clover-root 
Borer  and  the  Clover-root  Curculio.  As  adults 
both  are  small  beetles  that  lay  eggs  on  leaves  or  crowns 
of  clover  in  spring,  the  eggs  soon  hatching  into  small 
larvae  that  feed  upon  the  roots.  When  either  proves 
troublesome  the  adoption  of  a  system  of  short  crop 
rotation  is  desirable. 

The  Clover-leaf  Beetle  is  another  insect  which  has 
sometimes  been  troublesome  in  clover  fields.  The 
brownish  snout  beetle,  about  half  an  inch  long,  feeds 
upon  the  leaves  and  deposits  eggs  upon  the  stems.  The 
larvae  that  hatch  from  the  eggs  feed  upon  the  leaves  for 


232  CROP  PRODUCTION 

several  weeks.  Then  they  pupate  at  or  just  beneath  the 
soil  surface,  to  emerge  a  httle  later  as  beetles.  Plowing 
the  crop  under  in  May  or  June  is  an  effective  remedy,  as 
it  destroys  the  larvae. 

If  you  take  a  dozen  clover  blossom  heads,  especially 
such  as  show  a  green  and  dwarfed  condition,  and  shake 
them  violently  over  a  sheet  of  paper  you  may  often  dis- 
lodge tiny  orange  colored  maggots,  about  one  tenth  of 
an  inch  long.  These  are  the  larvae  of  the  Clover-seed 
Midge,  an  insect  that  often  greatly  reduces  the  crop  of 
clover  seed.  The  adult  is  a  small  two-winged  gnat,  with 
a  long  ovipositor  by  means  of  which  it  inserts  eggs  into 
the  young  florets  of  the  red  clover  head.  From  these 
eggs  the  orange  colored  larvae  hatch  and  develop  at 
the  expense  of  the  embryo  seeds.  When  full  grown  the 
larvae  wriggle  their  way  out  of  the  head  and  fall  to  the 
ground,  where  they  form  shght  silken  cocoons  within 
which  they  change  to  pupae.  About  ten  days  later 
they  change  again  to  the  gnat-like  flies  that  lay  eggs  for 
another  brood  of  larvae. 

The  injuries  of  the  Clover-seed  Midge  are  especially 
serious  only  in  case  the  crop  is  grown  for  seed.  Infested 
fields  are  distinguished  by  the  green  and  dwarfed  condi- 
tion of  the  heads  at  blossoming  time.  The  best  prevent- 
ive seems  to  be  that  of  mowing  the  field  in  spring  when 
the  green  heads  are  forming.  There  is  thus  produced  a 
crop  of  blossoms  which  escape  attack. 


LEGUMINOUS  CROPS:   ALFALFA  OR  LUCERNE  CLOVER 

Seed  Inspection 

Examine  with  a  lens  samples  of  Alfalfa  seed  offered 
for  sale  locally. 

Determine  the  percentage  of  impurities  as  represented 
by  seeds  of  other  plants. 

Sort  these  out  and  determine  as  many  as  possible  by 
comparison  with  the  collection  of  named  seeds. 

Determine  the  percentage  of  dodder  seed  present. 

Seed  Germination 

Determine  viability  without  preliminary  treatment, 
using  twenty  seeds  and  allowing  ten  days  for  germi- 
nation. 

Treat  ten  minutes  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. 
Wash  through  tea  strainer  to  free  seeds  from  acid. 

Now  determine  viability  and  compare  the  results 
with  the  results  from  untreated  seeds. 


Root  Nodules 

Dig  up  carefully  some  alfalfa  plants, 
water.     Spread  out  to  dry. 

233 


Wash  roots  in 


234 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


See  the  little  nodules  on  the  roots  that  enable  the 
plant  to  take  nitrogen  from  the  air.  They  look  like 
the  picture  below  which  shows  similar  nodules  on  the 
roots  of  Soy  beans. 

Draw  some  of  the  nodules. 

Enemies 

Examine  alfalfa  leaves  for  leaf-spot  and  other  fungous 
diseases. 

See  if  you  can  find  specimens  injured  by  dodder. 
Look  for  insect  enemies  in  alfalfa  fields. 


ALFALFA 

Alfalfa  or  Lucerne  is  a  member  of  the  great  Legume 
Family  and  is  called  by  botanists  Medicago  sativa.  It 
is  one  of  the  oldest  forage  crops,  having  been  known  in 
Persia  and  Greece  centuries  before  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.  It  was  introduced  to  the  American  con- 
tinent by  the  Spanish  invaders  during  the  sixteenth 
century  and  was  brought  to  Texas  and  California  from 
Mexico  and  South  America  during  the  nineteenth 
century.  It  proved  so  well  adapted  to  the  western  soils 
that  it  rapidly  became  a  staple  crop  and  is  now  the 
most  important  forage  plant  in  the  great  region  west  of 
the  Mississippi  river. 

The  extraordinary  value  of  Alfalfa  is  to  be  explained 
in  part  by  the  great  length  of  the  roots  and  their  ability, 
with  the  aid  of  nodule-forming  bacteria,,  to  gather  free 
nitrogen  from  the  air.  Their  deep  descent  and  large 
extent  enable  them  to  get  moisture  even  when  the  soil 
surface  is  dry  and  their  ability  to  use  free  nitrogen  gives 
them  nutriment  for  vigorous  growth  year  after  year 
without  the  renewal  of  the  field.  These  two  factors 
probably  account  for  the  remarkable  ability  of  the  plants 
to  send  up  new  shoots  when  those  already  grown  are  cut 
off,  so  that  six  or  more  crops  may  be  harvested  in  a  single 
season.  Another  important  element  is  found  in  the 
extraordinary  richness  of  the  leaves  and  stems  in  pro- 
tein, this  fact  giving  them  great  value  in  feeding  stock 
of  almost  any  kind. 

235 


236  CROP  PRODUCTION 

The  long  tap-root  and  other  characteristics  of  the 
Alfalfa  plant  especially  adapt  it  to  the  deep  soils  and  the 
long  seasons  of  the  southern  and  western  states.  In 
Arizona  the  crop  can  be  cut  over  eight  times  in  a  single 
season.  But  the  plant  also  has  decided  value  in  the 
northern  and  eastern  states.  As  its  requirements  are 
being  better  understood  it  is  becoming  a  standard  crop 
even  in  New  England.  Although  it  probably  cannot 
take  the  place  in  eastern  agriculture  that  it  does  in  western 
regions,  it  can  become  of  greatest  importance  here. 

Culture 

Alfalfa  is  more  difficult  to  get  well  started  than  many 
other  crops.  It  requires  a  rich,  non-acid,  weed-free 
soil,  in  good  tilth,  in  which  the  nodule-forming  bacteria 
are  present.  Many  eastern  soils  must  be  treated  with 
lime  to  counteract  their  acid  condition  and  nearly  all 
must  be  inoculated  with  Alfalfa  or  sweet  clover  bacteria. 
To  do  this  a  few  bushels  of  soil  from  ground  in  which 
either  of  these  plants  have  been  growing  thriftily  are 
scattered  over  each  acre  to  be  seeded  and  quickly  har- 
rowed in.  Late  summer  or  early  autumn  is  the  best 
time  for  seeding. 

Much  of  the  value  of  Alfalfa  lies  in  the  leaves.  It  is 
important  that  the  crop  be  cut  early  enough  to  save  these 
from  dropping  off.  As  soon  as  ten  per  cent  of  the  heads 
are  in  blossom  it  is  time  to  cut  the  crop.  The  new  crop 
of  stems  and  leaves  start  sooner  and  better  after  such 
early  cutting. 

Enemies 

It  is  not  strange  that  a  crop  grown  over  large  areas 
for  many  years  in  the  same  soil  should  have  developed 


ALFALFA 


237 


many  enemies.  When  once  introduced  into  such  a  field 
the  conditions  for  the  development  of  the  parasite  are 
very  favorable.  So  we  find  that  Alfalfa  is  subject  to 
more  than  a  dozen  fungous  diseases,  some  of  which  at 
times  become  very  destructive. 

The  Alfalfa  Leaf  Spot  is  the  most  widespread  of  these 
fungous  diseases,  as  it  is  present  in  nearly  every  alfalfa 
field  and  often  causes  the  dropping  of  a  large  part  of  the 
leaves.  The  small  brownish  black  spots  are  thickly 
scattered  over  the  leaflets,  which  soon  become  yellow 
and  fall  away.     Early  cutting  helps  to  check  the  trouble. 

Alfalfa  is  especially  Hkely  to  be  injured  by  the  para- 
sitic plant  called  Dodder.  This  is  not  a  fungous  but  a 
true  flowering  plant  that  grows  upon  the  stems  of  other 
plants  and  sucks  out  nutriment  from  them.  It  grows 
from  seed  and  is  introduced  to  the  field  because  Dodder 
seed  is  mixed  with  the  Alfalfa  seed.  Consequently  seed 
for  planting  should  be  carefully  examined,  and  if  the 
Dodder  seeds  are  present  it  should  not  be  planted. 


V. 

SOILS 

THEIR   ORIGIN,    CHARACTERISTICS 
AND    IMPROVEMENT 


THE   MAKING   OF   THE   SOIL 

Observations  on  Soils 

If  you  live  in  a  region  where  there  are  rocky  ledges, 
examine  different  parts  of  the  ledges  to  see  if  you  can  find 
where  particles  of  rock  have  been  broken  up  to  help 
form  soil.  Notice  the  plant  growths  upon  the  ledges  and 
see  if  there  are  fragments  of  such  plants  mixed  with  the 
rock  particles.  Find  places  between  the  ledges  where 
higher  plants  are  growing  in  small  amounts  of  such  soil. 

Examine  the  soil  that  you  find  in  the  woods.  Notice 
the  layer  of  recently  fallen  leaves  at  the  surface  and  note 
that  the  soil  below  is  composed  of  leaves  that  have 
decayed.  Dig  down  through  the  surface  to  the  sub- 
soil and  notice  the  differences  between  the  layers. 

Visit  a  swamp  or  a  peat  bog  and  dig  into  the  soil 
in  a  similar  way. 

Visit  a  brook  and  examine  the  deposits  of  soil  along 
its  margin.  Notice  where  sand  has  been  carried  in  and 
deposited  in  pockets  and  where  various  bits  of  plant 
life,  such  as  dead  twigs  and  pieces  of  tree  trunk,  have 
been  piled  up  to  rot  and  form  soil. 

The  Making  of  the  Soil 

The  production  of  crops  depends  upon  the  relation 
between  the  soil  and  the  various  crop  plants.  The 
soil  is  made  up  primarily  of  particles  of  rock  that  have 


242  CROP    PRODUCTION 

been  gradually  worn  away  from  the  solid  mass  that 
originally  formed  the  surface  of  the  earth,  together  with 
the  remains  of  plant  and  animal  life  that  have  been 
accumulating  for  millions  of  years. 

It  seems  hard  to  beheve  that  soils  have  thus  come  from 
rocks  and  ledges,  especially  if  one  lives  in  a  prairie  region 
where  rocks  are  few  and  far  between,  and  where  the  soil 
is  deep,  mellow,  and  rich.  But  if  one  lives  near  or  can 
visit  a  rocky,  mountainous  region,  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  see  many  stages  in  the  process  of  soil  formation. 
What  at  first  sight  seems  to  be  a  bare  cliff  shows  upon 
closer  examination  various  greenish  patches  on  the 
surface.  These  are  low  forms  of  plant  life  that  get  their 
materials  for  growth  chiefly  from  the  air  and  the  water. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  cliff  one  is  likely  to  find  a  mass  of 
rock  fragments  of  many  sizes  that  have  dropped  from 
the  face  of  the  cliff;  these  pieces  of  rock  are  often  more 
or  less  mixed  with  Httle  fragments  of  plant  growth  that 
have  fallen  from  above.  We  thus  have  the  beginning 
of  soil  formation  through  the  mixture  of  rock  particles 
and  fragments  of  plant  life.  In  this  material  higher 
plants  soon  grow,  and  when  they  die  their  remains  are 
added  to  enrich  and  enlarge  the  mass  of  soil. 

In  a  general  way  this  is  the  process  of  soil  formation 
which  is  taking  place  throughout  the  world.  The  soil 
originally  formed  in  one  place  may  have  been  carried 
by  streams  of  water,  by  constant  winds,  or  by  the  action 
of  the  great  ice  glaciers  of  a  previous  age  from  one 
locahty  to  another.  So  even  the  deep  soil  of  a  rich  prairie 
region  may  have  come  from  far  away  during  the  long 
ages  in  which  the  world  was  getting  ready  for  man  to 
occupy  it. 


THE    MAKING   OF   THE    SOIL  243 

Fertile  soils  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
partially  decayed  remains  of  plant  life.  This  material 
is  commonly  called  humus.  In  general,  humus  is  a 
convenient  word  to  use  when  we  wish  to  speak  of  the 
organic  material  in  a  soil  as  distinguished  from  the  in- 
organic material.  The  organic  material  is  that  which 
has  come  from  living  things, — plants  or  animals, — 
though  we  should  remember  that  all  animal  materials 
are  derived  from  plants.  The  inorganic  material  is  the 
part  of  the  soil  that  is  derived  from  rocks. 

If  you  visit  a  swamp,  especially  a  peat  bog,  you  are 
likely  to  find  a  soil  composed  very  largely  of  humus.  It 
is  made  up  chiefly  of  the  partially  decayed  remains  of 
plants  that  have  lived  and  died  in  the  swamp. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  successful  crop  production, 
the  presence  of  humus  in  the  soil  is  of  greatest  impor- 
tance. This  dead  vegetation  helps  more  than  any  other 
one  thing  to  render  the  soil  fit  for  the  root  growth  of  crop 
plants.  It  furnishes  the  best  material  for  improving  the 
physical  condition  of  both  clay  and  sandy  soils.  It 
helps  to  fill  the  pores  between  the  soil  particles  and  serves 
as  an  absorbent  to  hold  water,  thus  storing  it  up  for  the 
use  of  plants.  It  forms  a  breeding  place  for  the  mil- 
lions of  bacteria  of  many  kinds,  which  help  so  largely  in 
rendering  the  soil  fertile  for  plant  growth.  It  furnishes 
many  tiny  particles  for  the  support  of  root  hairs  and 
readily  gives  up  to  these  the  supply  of  food  and  mois- 
ture which  they  require. 

While  it  is  true  that  soils  originally  were  made  up  of 
particles  of  rock  mixed  with  the  remains  of  plants  or 
animals,  soils  as  they  now  exist  are  much  more  complex 
than  is  usually  supposed.     Every  fertile  soil  is  filled 


244  CROP    PRODUCTION 

with  living  germs  of  many  kinds  which  are  continually 
reacting  upon  the  soil  particles  and  getting  plant  food 
into  condition  for  use  by  crops.  The  lives  of  these  lowly 
organisms  and  the  effects  which  they  produce  upon  the 
soil  are  so  complicated  that  they  are  not  thoroughly 
understood  even  by  the  wisest  men.  We  know  enough, 
however,  to  recognize  the  fact  that  this  germ  life  in  the 
soil  plays  a  very  important  part  in  the  fertility  of  our 
fields  and  that  it  is  highly  desirable  to  furnish  condi- 
tions which  are  favorable  for  the  development  of  various 
kinds  of  bacteria.  Among  these  conditions  we  should 
include  an  abundant  supply  of  air  to  be  secured  throu-gh 
thorough  drainage  and  frequent  tillage  and  a  proper 
amount  of  humus  well  incorporated  between  the  soil 
particles.  Where  too  much  humus  is  present,  however, 
the  soil  becomes  sour  —  a  condition  which  is  unfavor- 
able, to  the  development  of  bacteria.  In  such  cases 
the  addition  of  lime  tends  to  sweeten  the  soil  and  make 
it  more  favorable  for  germ  life. 

These  tiny  bacteria  hve  not  only  in  the  soil  itself,  but 
a  very  important  kind  lives  in  little  nodules  upon  the 
roots  of  certain  plants.  Nearly  all  of  these  plants  be- 
long to  the  great  family  of  legumes,  which  includes  the 
clovers,  beans,  peas,  vetches,  and  alfalfa. 


THE   WATER   IN   THE   SOIL 
Drains  and  Drainage 

If  there  is  an  open  ditch  in  your  locahty,  notice  it 
carefully,  especially  after  a  rain.  Does  the  water  run 
into  it  through  the  vertical  sides,  and  does  it  have  the 
effect  of  causing  the  neighboring  soil  to  dry  out  more 
quickly  than  if  the  ditch  were  not  there? 

If  you  can  find  the  place  where  a  tile  ditch  opens  into 
a  brook,  notice  the  water  pouring  out  of  the  tile.  Where 
did  it  come  from?  What  is  the  effect  upon  the  field 
of  thus  placing  tiles  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  and  cover- 
ing them  over? 

Find  out,  if  you  can,  what  fields  in  your  locality  have 
been  drained  by  means  of  tile  drains.  Notice  whether 
such  fields  are  in  better  condition  than  similar  fields 
without  such  drainage. 

Free  Water  in  the  Soil 

Just  after  a  rain  the  soil  in  your  garden  is  likely  to  be 
very  wet.  If  you  dig  down  two  or  three  feet  the  hole 
will  probably  fill  with  water.  If  you  dig  a  ditch  so  that 
this  water  can  run  away,  you  will  soon  cause  the  surplus 
moisture  in  the  soil  to  disappear,  so  that  if  you  should 
dig  another  hole  no  water  would  come  into  it. 

The  water  that  has  thus  accumulated  in  the  bottom  of 
the  hole  or  has  run  away  through  the  drain  is  called  the 
245 


246  CROP    PRODUCTION 

free  water  of  the  soil.  Such  free  water  fills  the  pores 
between  the  soil  particles,  and  unless  there  is  natural 
or  artificial  drainage,  it  is  likely  to  remain  and  keep  the 
ground  so  wet  that  the  soil  becomes  stagnant  and  then 
the  roots  of  most  plants  cannot  grow.  Consequently, 
in  productive  soils  there  must  be  either  natural  or 
artificial  drainage  to  permit  this  free  water  to  run  away. 

The  great  majority  of  sandy  and  loamy  soils  are  so 
situated  that  there  is  natural  drainage  by  means  of  which 
the  free  soil  water  seeks  lower  levels  without  help  from 
man.  But  in  many  clay  soils,  and  in  other  soils  which 
are  underlaid  by  hard  pan,  it  is  necessary  to  provide 
artificial  drainage  to  lower  the  level  of  this  free  water 
in  the  soil.  The  simplest  way  to  provide  drainage  is  to 
dig  through  the  middle  of  a  field  a  ditch  deep  enough  so 
that  the  water  will  readily  be  carried  away.  This  ditch 
may  be  left  open,  but  in  this  case  it  takes  up  much  room 
and  is  inconvenient.  A  better  plan  is  to  lay  drain 
tiles  along  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  and  then  fill  in  the 
ditch  with  earth  over  the  tile.  This  is  called  tile  drain- 
age, and  it  is  the  best  method  of  improving  wet  soil. 

Such  soils  are  improved  by  tile  drainage  because  the 
surplus  water  runs  away  quickly,  leaving  the  pores  be- 
tween the  soil  particles  open  to  air  and  root  growth. 
Consequently,  the  field  can  be  worked  earlier  in  spring, 
so  that  the  crops  get  an  earher  start -and  the  roots  go 
deeper. 

Capillary  Moisture 

If  you  take  a  handful  of  soil  from  a  drained  field  and 
squeeze  it  tightly,  you  are  likely  to  find  that  it  is  quite 
moist.     Obviously  the  free  water  in  the  soil  in  this  case 


THE    WATER    IN    THE    SOIL  247 

has  run  away,  but  moisture  is  still  present.  You  can 
demonstrate  this  even  more  satisfactorily  by  heating 
a  little  of  the  soil  and  seeing  the  steam  escape. 

The  water  that  is  thus  present  in  soils  from  which  the 
free  water  has  run  away  is  called  capillary  moisture. 
Around  each  tiny  particle  of  the  soil  is  a  very  thin  film 
of  water  that  is  held  there  by  capillary  attraction.  If 
you  place  the  lower  end  of  a  vertical  string  or  a  lamp 
wick  in  water,  you  will  find  that  this  string  or  wick  soon 
becomes  wet  for  some  distance  above  the  surface.  The 
water  is  drawn  upward  along  the  thread  by  capillary 
attraction.  This  is  the  same  force  that  serves  to  keep 
the  film  of  moisture  around  the  soil  particles. 

Capillary  attraction  also  helps  to  keep  soils  moist  by 
causing  the  water  from  below  to  rise  constantly  toward 
the  top,  very  much  as  the  oil  in  a  kerosene  lamp  rises 
constantly  to  the  flame.  The  particles  at  the  surface 
lose  a  great  deal  of  moisture  through  evaporation,  espe- 
cially when  the  ground  is  baked.  This  loss  is  replaced 
by  the  water  that  rises  from  below  in  very  much  the  same 
way  that  the  oil  burned  in  a  lamp  flame  is  replaced  by 
the  oil  contained  in  the  lamp. 

The  amount  of  capillary  moisture  held  by  a  soil 
depends  very  largely  upon  the  fineness  of  the  particles. 
The  smaller  and  more  numerous  these  particles  are,  the 
larger  is  the  surface  to  be  covered  by  the  film  of  water. 
You  can  easily  understand  this  if  you  make  the  following 
experiment : 

Cut  from  a  potato  a  cube  an  inch  square.  Estimate 
the  amount  of  surface  it  presents.  Then  cut  this  cube 
into  eight  smaller  cubes,  all  of  equal  size.  Estimate  the 
surface  area  which  the  original  cube  now  has.     By  cut- 


248  CROP  PRODUCTION 

ting  each  of  these  into  eight  more  you  will  easily  see  that 
the  surface  area  depends  entirely  upon  the  size  of  the 
particles. 

The  water  held  by  capillary  attraction  depends  upon 
the  surface  area  of  the  particles.  Consequently  a  coarse 
gravel  would  hold  less  moisture  than  a  coarse  sand, 
and  the  coarse  sand  would  hold  less  than  a  fine  sand. 


SOIL   FERTILITY 

Rich  Soils  and  Poor  Soils 

Notice  carefully  different  fields  in  your  vicinity  to 
see  which  naturally  produce  good  crops  and  which  pro- 
duce poor  ones.  Get  samples  of  the  soil  from  the  dif- 
ferent fields  and  examine  them  as  to  their  fineness  and 
the  comparative  amounts  of  clay,  sand,  and  humus. 
Stir  each  soil  in  a  tumbler  of  water  and  then  let  it  settle. 
After  it  has  settled  notice  the  different  layers. 

Commercial  Fertilizers 

In  the  school  or  home  garden,  plant  quick-growing 
crops  like  radishes  or  lettuce,  using  a  small  amount  of 
commercial  fertilizer  for  part  of  each  row  and  omitting 
it  for  the  rest.  Watch  the  crops  as  they  develop  and  see 
which  starts  the  sooner  and  grows  the  more  vigorously. 

Learn  which  farmers  in  the  vicinity  use  commercial 
fertilizers  and  for  what  crops.  Find  out  whether  such 
use  is  repaid  by  the  increased  yields  of  the  crop. 

Root  Nodules 

Carefully  dig  up  the  roots  of  clovers,  peas,  beans, 
alfalfa,  vetch,  or  other  members  of  the  great  family  of 
legumes,  and  wash  the  soil  out  in  water.  Then  examine 
the  roots  to  see  whether  there  are  small  nodules  or  tuber- 
cules  upon  them.  These  nodules  contain  millions  of 
249 


250  CROP    PRODUCTION 

tiny  bacteria  that  help  the  plant  to  grow  by  gathering 
the  free  nitrogen  from  the  air. 

Find  out  what  farmers  in  your  vicinity  plow  under 
green  crops  to  enrich  the  soil.  Learn  whether  these 
crops  belong  to  the  great  family  of  legumes. 

Soil  Fertility 

There  are  certain  chemical  compounds  which  are  espe- 
cially necessary  for  the  growth  of  crops.  The  most 
important  of  these  are  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  nitro- 
gen. Nearly  all  crop  plants  take  up  large  quantities 
of  these  three  materials,  and  it  is  often  necessary  to 
replace  this  loss  by  the  addition  of  special  combinations 
of  chemicals  containing  them.  Such  combinations  are 
added  for  the  purpose  of  fertilizing  the  soil,  and  as  these 
fertilizers  are  usually  sold  in  large  quantities  commer- 
cially, they  are  commonly  called  commercial  fertilizers. 
Most  soils  contain  certain  amounts  of  these  substances 
which  were  originally  present  in  the  formation  of  the 
soil  or  have  been  developed  through  the  action  of  bac- 
teria or  chemical  compounds  on  the  humus  or  other 
soil  material. 

In  order  to  be  available  for  the  growth  of  crops,  all 
of  the  materials  that  enter  into  the  plant  must  be  either 
in  a  Hquid  form  or  dissolved  in  water.  A  soil  may  con- 
tain considerable  amounts  of  potash,  phosphorus,  or 
other  elements  which  are  locked  up  so  far  as  plants  are 
concerned,  because  they  are  not  in  the  soluble  form. 
One  cannot  always  tell  from  the  mere  fact  that  a  soil  on 
chemical  analysis  shows  large  amounts  of  these  essential 
elements  that  it  is  necessarily  in  a  fertile  condition. 


SOIL    FERTILITY 


251 


Obviously  the  materials  applied  to  the  land  in  the  form 
of  commercial  fertilizers  should  be  easily  soluble.  As 
a  rule  the  ingredients  of  these  fertilizers  are  of  this  sort, 
and  one  can  easily  tell  from  the  guaranteed  analysis 
given  by  the  manufacturers  to  what  extent  this  is  true. 

Among  the  various  chemical  elements  which  are  needed 
for  the  growth  of  plants,  nitrogen  is  one  of  the  most 
important.  It  is  commonly  furnished  in  the  form  of 
commercial  fertilizers  as  well  as  in  connection  with  the 
various  organic  fertilizers  that  are  applied  to  the  soil. 

Every  one  knows  that  a 
large  part  of  the  air  is  com- 
posed of  nitrogen,  and  one 
might  think  that  an  ele- 
ment which  is  so  abundant 
would  be  easily  available 
for  plant  growth.  The 
nitrogen  of  the  air,  how- 
ever, is  not  in  a  form  which 
plants  can  utilize,  so  that 
the  free-air  nitrogen  cannot 
be  depended  upon  for 
direct  help  in  the  growth  Modules  Containing  Nitrogen 
.  On  the  roots  of  a  leguminous  plant. 

01  liowering  plants. 

Fortunately,  there  are  certain  low  forms  of  germ  life 
which  are  able  to  take  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  and  fix 
it  in  a  condition  in  which  it  can  be  used  by  the  higher 
plants.  This  constitutes  a  sort  of  partnership  between 
the  bacteria  and  the  various  members  of  the  great  family 
of  legumes  —  the  clovers,  vetches,  beans,  peas,  alfalfa, 
and  related  crops.  These  bacteria  produce  nodules 
upon  the  roots  of  such  plants,  and  in  the  nodules  the 


252  CROP    PRODUCTION 

bacteria  multiply  and  through  their  hfe  processes  gather 
the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air.  They  store  it  up  in  the  plant 
tissues  so  that  it  becomes  available  for  the  growth  of 
the  particular  plants  that  they  are  living  upon,  and 
through  these  it  may  later  become  available  for  the  use 
of  other  crops.  The  illustration  on  page  231  shows  the 
effect  of  the  presence  or  absence  of  bacteria  in  the  soil. 
This  relation  between  the  germs  and  the  leguminous 
plants  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  maintain- 
ing the  fertility  of  the  soil.  By  including  in  each  system 
of  crop  rotation  one  of  these  leguminous  plants,  which  is 
to  be  plowed  under  in  whole  or  in  part,  the  store  both  of 
humus  and  nitrogen  in  the  soil  is  increased  to  a  marked 
degree.  For  the  nitrogen  which  is  gathered  from  the 
air  is  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  plant,  so  that  if  the  green 
crop  is  plowed  under,  most  of  the  nitrogen  remains  in 
the  soil  to  enrich  it  for  other  crops. 


SOIL  TILLAGE  AND    CROP   ROTATION 

Kinds  of  Tillage 

Notice  in  what  way  the  crop-producing  soils  of  your 
locality  are  tilled.  Observe  how  the  soil  is  plowed, 
harrowed,  cultivated,  rolled,  hoed,  and  raked. 

During  a  dry  time  in  summer  notice  the  cracks  that 
appear  in  a  soil  which  has  been  neglected,  and  compare 
such  a  condition  with  the  surface  of  a  soil  which  has 
been  kept  in  good  condition  by  tillage. 

Learn  how  deep  the  fields  in  your  neighborhood  are 
usually  plowed.  Does  the  plow  go  down  to  the  sub- 
soil? 

Tillage  and  Moisture 

Notice  whether  the  soil  under  a  board  or  any  mass 
of  rubbish  that  serves  as  a  surface  mulch  is  more  moist 
than  the  soil  along  a  path  or  roadside  where  there  is  no 
mulch  and  where  the  surface  is  not  tilled.  Do  you 
think  that  the  board  or  mulch  prevents  the  evaporation 
of  the  water  in  the  soil  and  so  holds  it  for  the  use  of  plant 
roots? 

Now  find  a  place  in  a  well-cultivated  field  where  the 
surface  is  in  a  finely  pulverized  condition  and  remove 
an  inch  or  two  of  the  top  soil.  Is  the  soil  below  moist 
in  very  much  the  same  way  that  it  is  moist  beneath  the 
board  or  mulch?  Do  you  think  that  this  layer  of  sur- 
face soil  serves  the  purpose  of  a  mulch  in  keeping  the 
water  from  evaporating? 

253 


254  CROP    PRODUCTION 


Rotation  of  Crops 


Find  out  whether  the  best  fanners  in  your  locahty 
plant  their  fields  to  different  crops  each  year.  Ask 
some  successful  farmer  if  he  ever  plants  the  same  field 
to.  corn  or  potatoes  for  several  years  in  succession. 

Learn  what  crops  are  used  to  follow  one  another  by 
the  different  farmers  in  your  neighborhood  and  make 
a  table  of  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  find  for  the  practice 
of  crop  rotation  in  your  vicinity. 

Dig  up  carefully  a  few  plants  of  timothy,  oats,  wheat, 
clover,  corn,  or  other  crops  and  see  if  you  can  find  how 
far  down  into  the  soil  the  roots  go  in  each  case. 

Tillage 

By  tillage  is  meant  some  process  of  digging  up  and 
working  over  the  soil.  It  is  the  most  fundamental  prac- 
tice in  the  production  of  the  great  majority  of  crops. 
Unless  the  soil  is  tilled  at  rather  frequent  intervals,  it 
becomes  so  firm  and  hard  that  it  is  difficult  for  plant  roots 
to  penetrate  it  and  consequently  the  plants  are  unable 
to   thrive. 

The  two  principal  kinds  of  tillage  are  deep  tillage  and 
surface  tillage.  When  we  dig  up  a  garden  with  a  spade, 
or  plow  a  field  to  a  depth  of  eight  or  ten  inches,  we  are 
practicing  deep  tillage.  When  we  hoe  or  rake  a  garden, 
or  cultivate  a  field,  we  are  practicing  surface  tillage. 

Deep  tillage  is  necessary  to  furnish  a  proper  place  for 
adequate  root  growth  for  most  crops.  It  loosens  up  the 
soil  particles  in  such  a  way  that  they  are  easily  penetrated 
by  the  roots  and  rootlets  and  are  able  to  furnish  the 


SOIL   TILLAGE    AND    CROP   ROTATION      255 

tiny  root  hairs  with  moisture  and  materials  for  growth. 
The  important  tune  for  deep  tillage  is  before  the  crop 
is  planted. 

Surface  tillage  is  necessary  to  keep  the  upper  layer 
of  soil  in  good  condition,  to  check  the  growth  of  weeds, 
and  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  soil  moisture.  The 
latter  result  is  accomplished  because  proper  surface 
tillage  produces  a  so-called  dust  mulch  which  prevents 
evaporation  from  the  soil  below.  The  important  time 
for  surface  tillage  is  after  the  crop  has  started  into 
growth. 

Crop  Rotation 

The  rotation  of  crops  is  one  of  the  best  ways  of  con- 
serving the  fertility  of  the  soil.  When  this  is  practiced 
one  crop  follows  another  in  the  same  field,  so  that  for  a 
series  of  years  no  single  crop  shall  be  planted  for  two 
successive  seasons.  A  common  succession  is  to  follow 
corn  with  wheat  and  wheat  with  clover,  so  that  for  a 
series  of  three  years  the  field  will  be  planted  the  first  year 
to  corn,  the  second  year  to  wheat,  and  the  third  year  to 
clover,  the  latter  being  plowed  under  after  it  has  been 
growing  one  or  two  seasons,  when  the  field  may  again  be 
planted  to  corn.  In  different  regions  different  systems 
of  rotation  are  practiced. 

There  are  many  advantages  in  a  proper  system  of 
crop  rotation.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is 
in  the  ability  to  enrich  the  land  by  plowing  under  clover 
or  some  other  leguminous  crop  which  gathers  nitrogen 
from  the  air.  The  principal  legumes  used  in  this  way 
are  red  clover,  crimson  clover,  alfalfa,  cow  peas,  and 
the  vetches.     Each  of  these  crops  is  able  to  gather  free 


256  CROP    PRODUCTION 

nitrogen  from  the  air  and  to  fix  it  so  that  as  the  root- 
stems  and  leaves  decay  the  nitrogen  becomes  available 
for  the  growth  of  other  crops.  There  is  also  thus  added 
to  the  soil  a  large  amount  of  green  vegetation  which 
helps  to  form  humus,  one  of  the  most  important  elements 
in  the  make-up  of  a  soil. 

Another  advantage  of  crop  rotation  is  found  in  the 
fact  that  the  roots  of  different  plants  penetrate  to  differ- 
ent depths  in  the  soil.  Consequently,  it  is  possible  to 
plan  a  rotation  so  that  each  crop  will  derive  most  of  its 
food  from  a  different  region  below  the  soil  surface.  Such 
a  grass  as  timothy  is  known  as  a  shallow  feeder,  because 
its  roots  generally  remain  within  six  inches  of  the  surface. 
Alfaffa,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  deep  feeder,  its  roots 
commonly  penetrating  to  a  depth  of  from  four  to  twenty 
feet.  Obviously,  there  is  an  advantage  in  including 
crops  with  such  different  root  systems  in  a  rotation. 

Another  advantage  of  crop  rotation  is  found  in  the 
fact  that  different  plants  take  different  amounts  of 
chemical  substances  from  the  soil.  While  it  is  not  now 
believed  that  this  fact  is  of  as  much  importance  as  was 
formerly  supposed,  it  still  serves  as  a  good  reason  for 
practicing  an  intelligent  system  of  crop  rotation. 

In  most  rotations  the  different  crops  require  very 
different  methods  of  cultivation.  Thus  a  hoed  crop 
like  corn  is  often  foil  wed  by  a  drilled  or  broadcast 
crop  like  wheat.  Because  of  this  it  is  easier  to  keep 
in  check  many  sorts  of  weeds  which  become  unduly 
abundant  when  one  crop  is  planted  in  the  same  field  for 
many  successive  seasons.  In  a  somewhat  similar  way 
various  fungus  diseases  are  checked  by  rotation,  and  the 
injuries  of  many  forms  of  insect  life  are  prevented. 


THE   KINDS   OF   SOILS 

Local  Soils 

Notice  the  different  kinds  of  soils  which  are  used  for 
crops  in  your  region.  Get  samples  from  a  sandy  upland 
soil,  a  clay  soil,  a  good  garden  loam,  and  a  swamp  soil. 
Put  them  into  bottles  or  tumblers  and  examine  their 
texture  through  a  lens.  Add  water  and  shake  thor- 
oughly. Notice  the  differences  after  the  soils  settle  in 
the  water. 

The  Kinds  of  Soils 

Soils  are  classified  in  many  ways,  but  for  our  present 
purpose  we  may  group  them  simply  under  these  four 
headings:  clay  soils,  sandy  soils,  loamy  soils,  muck 
soils.  Clay  soils  are  composed  chiefly  of  clay,  and  are 
liable  to  cake  when  wet  and  to  bake  when  dry.  Sandy 
soils  are  composed  chiefly  of  sand,  the  greatest  number 
of  particles  generally  being  quartz,  and  are  liable  to  be 
unproductive  because  of  a  lack  of  humus  and  because 
of  their  inability  to  hold  water.  Loamy  soils  have  a 
considerable  percentage  of  humus,  which  makes  them 
easy  to  work  and  suitable  for  plant  growth.  A  given  soil 
may  be  a  sandy  loam,  having  much  sand  as  a  basis,  or  a 
clay  loam,  having  much  clay  as  a  basis.  A  muck  soil 
is  derived  mainly  from  plant  growth,  and  may  lack  cer- 
tain elements  of  fertility  necessary  to  successful  crop 
production. 

257 


258  CROP    PRODUCTION 

Improving  Clay  Soils 

In  many  parts  of  the  United  States  clay  soils  predomi- 
nate in  a  large  proportion  of  the  farms.  Such  soils  are 
likely  to  be  so  firmly  compacted  that  crops  do  not  thrive. 
This  is  because  the  particles  which  make  up  the  soil  are 
in  so  finely  powdered  condition  that  they  collect  together, 
prevent  the  easy  growth  of  roots,  retain  moisture  in  wet 
weather,  and  bake  solid  in  dry  weather.  To  remedy 
this  condition  it  is  necessary  to  treat  the  soil  by  such 
methods  as  will  either  change  its  texture  or  increase  the 
size  of  the  spaces  between  the  soil  particles. 

One  of  the  most  effective  ways  of  improving  a  clay 
soil  is  by  a  thorough  system  of  drainage.  This  permits 
the  surplus  water  to  run  away  rapidly,  thus  allowing  the 
air  freer  access  from  above.  It  is  likely  to  decrease 
the  injury  from  surface  baking  in  dry  weather,  and 
enables  the  owner  to  till  the  soil  oftener  and  to  secure 
better  results  by  means  of  such  tillage. 

Frequent  tillage  when  a  clay  soil  is  in  a  proper  condi- 
tion to  work  is  very  helpful  in  improving  its  texture. 
It  breaks  up  the  large  lumps  and  greatly  increases  the 
amount  of  air  between  the  soil  particles,  thus  enabling 
the  root  hairs  to  penetrate  more  freely  and  the  various 
micro-organisms  in  the  soil  to  work  more  effectively. 

It  is  very  injurious,  however,  to  plow,  spade,  or  even  hoe 
a  clay  soil  when  it  is  too  wet.  Such  treatment  compacts 
the  soil  particles  so  firmly  that  they  harden  into  solid 
clumps  which  plant  roots  are  not  able  to  penetrate. 
When  a  clay  soil  is  too  dry,  tillage  can  be  done  only 
under  great  disadvantage,  as  the  operation  becomes 
very  difficult,  and  the  soil  is  likely  to  separate  into  large 
lumps  which  are  hard  to  pulverize. 


THE    KINDS    OF    SOILS  259 

One  of  the  best  ways  of  improving  the  quahty  of  a  clay 
soil  is  to  work  into  it  a  considerable  amount  of  organic 
matter.  When  this  decays,  the  particles  of  humus  be- 
come thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil  particles,  holding 
them  apart  and  furnishing  a  porous  material  that  absorbs 
water  readily  and  also  gives  it  up  readily  to  plant  roots. 
The  practice  of  applying  barnyard  manures,  of  plowing 
under  green  crops,  or  of  working  in  fallen  leaves  is  an 
excellent  method  of  adding  organic  matter  to  the  soil. 
By  a  constant  repetition  of  such  practice,  clay  soils  may 
be  brought  into  admirable  condition  for  crop  production. 

Clay  soils  may  be  greatly  improved  by  the  liberal 
appHcation  of  some  form  of  agricultural  lime.  Finely 
ground  limestone  appears  to  be  one  of  the  best  forms 
in  which  to  apply  this  substance.  The  improvement 
brought  about  is  to  be  explained  in  several  ways.  Lime 
has  a  direct  action  upo  n  the  particles  of  clay,  causing 
them  to  break  apart  and  thus  increasing  the  air  spaces 
between  the  particles.  This  is  often  called  the  floccu- 
lating action  of  lime. 

The  presence  of  lime  also  hastens  the  decay  of  organic 
matter  and  apparently  renders  the  soil  more  favorable 
to  the  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria  which  live  in  the  roots 
of  clover,  alfalfa,  and  other  legumes.  The  lime  neu- 
tralizes many  acid  substances  in  the  soil  and  directly  or 
indirectly  helps  to  prevent  the  growth  of  various  organ- 
isms which  injure  the  roots  of  plants. 

The  application  of  lime  is  especially  desirable  before 
sowing  any  leguminous  crop.  It  also  helps  the  growth 
of  many  other  farm  and  garden  crops,  but  it  has  an  in- 
jurious effect  upon  potatoes,  strawberries,  and  a  few 
other  fruits  and  vegetables. 


26o  CROP    PRODUCTION 


Improving  Sandy  Soils 


In  the  case  of  clay  soils  the  particles  are  too  fine  for 
the  best  results,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  give  such  treat- 
ment as  will  have  the  effect  of  making  the  particles  or 
the  spaces  between  them  larger.  In  the  case  of  sandy 
soils,  on  the  other  hand,  the  trouble  is  quite  the  reverse. 
The  particles  are  so  large  that  the  spaces  between  them 
allow  the  rapid  running  away  of  moisture,  and  the  par- 
ticles themselves  are  so  hard  that  they  do  not  absorb 
moisture,  and  they  afford  very  Httle  nourishment  to 
the  root  hairs  of  plants.  In  improving  such  soils  it  is 
necessary  to  treat  them  so  that  they  will  hold  water 
better  and  will  have  a  larger  proportion  of  organic 
matter  as  a  basis  for  plant  food. 

With  most  sandy  soils  the  chief  method  of  improve- 
ment is  to  increase  the  amount  of  humus  by  adding 
large  quantities  of  organic  matter  and  plowing  or  spad- 
ing it  under.  For  this  purpose  barnyard  manure,  green 
crops  of  clover,  rye,  vetch,  or  other  plants,  or  the  fallen 
leaves  of  trees  and  shrubs  serve  very  well.  When  any 
of  these  materials  is  mixed  with  sandy  soil,  it  soon 
decays  and  furnishes  vast  numbers  of  particles  of  humus 
that  he  between  the  particles  of  sand  and  help  to  make 
the  soil  more  mellow.  The  supply  of  moisture  and 
plant  food  is  thus  greatly  increased,  and  the  opportu- 
nity for  proper  development  of  plant  roots  is  improved. 
Such  treatment  helps  to  make  the  soil  much  more 
compact. 


APPENDIX 


SUGGESTIONS   FOR   THE   TEACHER 

Starting  Seeds  Indoors 

For  starting  seeds  of  flowers  and  vegetables  indoors  one  or 
more  wide  shallow  boxes  is  very  desirable.  It  should  be  of 
such  a  depth  as  to  hold  readily  about  three  inches  of  soil 
'  and  have  above  the  soil  surface  about  an  inch  of  board  around 
the  sides  so  that  the  water  will  not  overflow.  One  of  the 
most  satisfactory  seed  beds  I  have  used  in  school  work  is 
one  of  the  familiar  sand  tables  so  generally  utilized  in  geog- 
raphy classes.  In  a  great  many  schools  these  sand  tables  are 
available  and  may  readily  be  spared  for  the  starting  of  the 
seedlings  during  the  few  weeks  in  spring  when  they  are  es- 
pecially needed  for  this  purpose.  In  the  absence  of  a  sand 
table  window  boxes  or  shallow  boxes  of  almost  any  sort  may 
be  utilized. 

The  seed  bed  should  be  placed  in  such  a  position  that  it 
will  get  as  much  light  and  air  as  possible,  receiving  direct 
sunshine  during  part  of  the  day.  The  soil  used  should  be  a 
good  rich  garden  loam  which  has  been  sifted  through  a  garden 
sieve  so  that  all  the  particles  are  in  a  finely  pulverized  condi- 
tion. It  should  be  kept  moderately  moist  but  not  too  wet 
and  should  never  be  allowed  to  dry  out  completely.  The 
seed  may  be  sown  either  in  drills  or  broadcast  over  part  of 
the  surface,  and  should  be  covered  by  sifting  more  soil  over 
it,  the  depth  of  covering  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  seed. 

After  the  seedlings  are  up  they  may  be  transplanted  to 

shallow  boxes,  or  better  to  small  sized  flower-pots.      For 

school  use  I  have  found  the  paper  flower-pots  to  have  many 

advantages  over  the  ordinary  pottery  kinds.     These  paper 

263 


264  CROP    PRODUCTION 

pots  are  very  inexpensive,  the  smaller  sorts  costing  at  whole- 
sale but  twenty-five  cents  per  hundred.  They  also  take  up 
less  room  than  do  the  common  kinds,  and  as  the  sides  of  the 
pot  are  of  oiled  paper  they  do  not  allow  the  constant  evapora- 
tion that  is  likely  to  take  place  in  a  heated  schoolroom  from 
the  entire  surface  of  the  ordinary  flower-pot.  They  are  less 
easily  broken  than  the  ordinary  pot  and  it  is  safer  to  trust 
pupils  to  carry  their  plants  home  in  them. 

The  seedlings  may  be  grown  for  several  weeks  in  these 
individual  pots  and  are  then  to  be  transplanted  to  the  outdoor 
garden.  If,  in  the  meanwhile,  the  roots  get  too  crow^ded  in 
the  pot  in  which  a  plant  is  growing  it  should  of  course  be 
repotted  into  a  pot  of  larger  size. 

The  Flower  Border 

In  the  case  of  the  more  important  annual  flowers  discussed 
in  these  pages  specific  directions  are  given  for  transplanting 
them  out  of  doors.  In  general  it  may  be  said,  however,  that 
the  best  place  to  plant  the  flowxr  garden  is  along  the  border 
of  a  yard,  with  the  fence  or  w^all  as  background,  or  along  the 
sides  of  the  house  or  in  some  part  of  the  vegetable  garden. 
Flower  gardens  should  not  be  a  bit  of  space  cut  in  the  middle 
of  a  lawn,  for  this  not  only  injures  the  beauty  of  the  lawn 
but  it  seldom  gives  the  flowers  a  good  opportunity  to  develop. 

The  first  requisite  for  a  successful  border  garden  is  a  wjell- 
prepared  place  for  the  roots  to  live  and  feed  in.  In  almost 
any  school  this  is  easily  accomplished  if  the  teacher  will  let 
the  pupils  help.  Dig  out  the  soil  or  sand  or  gravel  of  the  site 
selected  to  a  depth  of  at  least  eighteen  inches, —  two  feet  is 
better.  Then  fill  in  this  lower  space  with  fallen  leaves, 
grass  raked  from  the  lawn,  mulching  from  the  winter  cover- 
ings of  ornamental  gardens,  almost  anything  in  fact  that 
consists  chiefly  of  plant  fiber  that  will  rot  down  to  form 
humus.     As    these    materials    are   placed    on    the   bottom, 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR   THE   TEACHER        265 

sprinkle  over  a  little  of  the  soil  taken  out  so  that  it  is  about 
one  third  soil.  Then  on  top,  get,  if  possible,  eight  inches  or 
so  of  loamy  soil.  The  pupils  will  be  glad  to  help  furnish  the 
latter,  if  it  cannot  be  obtained  otherwise.  As  the  coarse 
material  below  rots  down  it  will  form  a  good  substance  for 
holding  moisture  during  the  dry  summer  weather. 

If  there  is  a  long  border  to  be  made  into  a  garden,  begin  at 
one  end  and  go  as  far  as  you  can  easily  the  first  season, 
leaving  the  rest  for  another  year. 

The  making  of  such  a  border  garden  at  school  is  the  best 
sort  of  an  object  lesson  to  the  pupils  as  to  the  way  the  border 
gardens  at  home  are  to  be  made. 

The  Vegetable  Garden 

That  school  is  fortunate  which  is  able  to  provide  an  out- 
door vegetable  garden  near  the  schoolhouse  for  the  use  of 
pupils,  and  these  pages  should  prove  a  helpful  guide  in  all 
such  cases.  But  the  experience  of  an  increasing  number  of 
schools  shows  that  a  great  deal  may  be  done  in  the  encour- 
agement of  home  gardens  by  the  pupils,  in  the  numerous 
cases  of  those  schools  which  are  not  so  situated  that  they  can 
have  pupils'  gardens  near  at  hand. 

In  most  cases  it  is  not  desirable  to  lay  too  much  stress  upon 
the  selection  of  a  particular  site  or  soil  for  the  home  garden. 
It  is  better  to  encourage  pupils  to  make  the  most  of  the  soil 
they  have. 

The  garden  is  first  to  be  plowed  and  harrowed,  or  spaded 
and  raked,  to  get  it  in  the  best  possible  condition.  Fertiliz- 
ing materials  of  any  sort  available  should  be  worked  in  before 
or  after  turning  over.  Each  crop  is  then  to  be  planted  accord- 
ing to  the  directions  given  in  the  text. 


266  CROP    PRODUCTION 

Recognition  Tests 

Among  the  projects  outlined  in  the  foregoing  pages  there 
are  many  small  and  temporary  exhibits  of  flowers,  fruits  and 
other  things,  each  properly  labeled.  In  order  to  be  sure  that 
such  displays  have  been  of  greatest  benefit  it  is  very  desirable 
to  have  recognition  tests  for  each  pupil. 

This  exhibit  may  be  placed  to  advantage  in  a  hallway  or 
small  room  adjoining  the  main  room.  In  case  such  a  place 
is  not  available  have  it  on  a  table  in  a  corner  of  the  room. 
Notify  the  pupils  that  after  a  few  days  there  will  be  a  test 
to  see  that  each  knows  the  name  of  every  object  shown. 
Then  on  the  day  selected  remove  the  labels  and  give  the 
test  to  one  of  the  more  responsible  pupils.  Then  let  that 
pupil  give  the  test  to  each  other  pupil,  having  them  go  one 
at  a  time  and  name  each  object.  Mark  them  on  this  test, 
just  as  you  would  on  a  book  recitation. 

Seed-testing  Apparatus 

The  testing  of  seeds  by  individual  pupils  is  one  of  the 
simplest  and  most  useful  applications  of  the  project  method. 
Such  tests  can  be  made  in  any  school  at  any  time  with  appa- 
ratus that  any  one  can  get. 

In  order  to  germinate  a  seed  needs  moisture,  air  and 
warmth.  Any  device  that  provides  these  will  serve  for  seed 
testing.  Two  pieces,  of  blotting  paper  kept  moist  wuth  the 
seeds  between  them  answers  very  well.  Some  more  elaborate 
but  very  satisfactory  devices  are  shown  in  the  pictures  on 
previous  pages. 

Plants  in  the  Schoolroom 

It  is  a  very  simple  matter  to  have  pupils  grow  plants 

in  the  schoolroom  with  individual  care  and  responsibility, 

provided  one  has  a  few  inexpensive  zinc  trays  and  a  supply 

of  the  cheap  paper  flower-pots  to  be  purchased  of  any  seeds- 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    THE    TEACHER        267 

man.  Have  the  zinc  trays  made  to  fit  the  window  sills  or 
better  to  fit  shelves  just  below  each  window.  If  the  windows 
are  wide  have  two  trays  for  each  because  short  trays  are  so 
much  easier  to  handle  than  long  ones.  A  good  size  is  30 
inches  long,  8  inches  wide,  i  J  inches  high. 

The  paper  flower-pots  cost  from  twenty  to  forty  cents  a 
hundred.  Good  sizes  for  school  work  range  from  the  2  J  inch 
to  3  J  inch,  the  3  inch  size  being  most  generally  useful. 

A  few  water-tight  zinc  window  boxes  about  four  inches 
high  and  of  a  length  and  width  to  fit  the  window  are  also  very 
desirable.  A  full  discussion  concerning  the  making  and  use 
of  these  may  be  found  in  The  School  Garden  Book. 

Identification  of  Specimens 
The  school  may  have  an  important  influence  on  community 
life  by  encouraging  pupils  to  send  specimens  of  unknown 
insect  enemies  or  fungous  diseases,  or  of  undetermined  va- 
rieties of  fruits,  grains  or  other  crops  to  the  State  experiment 
stations  or  the  National  Department  of  Agriculture.  These 
authorities  will  be  glad  to  identify  such  specimens  and  to  send 
any  desired  information  concerning  them.  The  addresses 
of  these  institutions  are: 

Alabama College  Experiment  Station     .  Auburn 

Arizona Experiment  Station Tucson 

Arkansas Experiment  Station Fayette ville 

California     ....  Experiment  Station Berkeley 

Colorado Experiment  Station Fort  Collins 

Connecticut     .    .    .  State  Experiment  Station    .    .  New  Haven 

Connecticut     .    .    .  College  Experiment  Station     .  Storrs 

Delaware     ....  Experiment  Station Newark 

Florida Experiment  Station Gainesville 

Georgia Experiment  Station Experiment 

Idaho Experiment  Station Moscow 

Illinois Experiment  Station Urbana 

Indiana Experiment  Station Lafayette 

Iowa Experiment  Station  .....  Ames 


268  CROP    PRODUCTION 

Kansas Experiment  Station Manhattan 

Kentucky     ....   Experiment  Station Lexington 

Louisiana     ....   Experiment  Station Baton  Rouge 

Maine Experiment  Station Orono 

Maryland     ....   Experiment  Station College  Park 

Massachusetts     .    .   Experiment  Station Amherst 

Michigan      ....   Experiment  Station East  Lansing 

Minnesota    ....   Experiment  Station St.  Anthony  Park 

Mississippi  ....   Experiment  Station Agricultural  College 

Missouri Experiment  Station Columbia 

Montana Experiment  Station Bozeman 

Nebraska     ....   Experiment  Station Lincoln 

Nevada Experiment  Station Reno 

New  Hampshire  .    .   Experiment  Station Durham 

New  Jersey      .    .    .   Experiment  Station New  Brunswick 

New  Mexico    .    .    .   Experiment  Station Agricultural  College 

New  York    ....   State  Experiment  Station    .    .  Geneva 
New  York    ....   Cornell  Experiment  Station     .  Ithaca 
North  Carolina  .    .   College  Experiment  Station     .  West  Raleigh 
North  Carolina   .    .   State  Experiment  Station    .    .  Raleigh 

North  Dakota     .    .   Experiment  Station Agricultural  College 

Ohio      Experiment  Station Wooster 

Oklahoma    ....   Experiment  Station Stillwater 

Oregon Experiment  Station Corvallis 

Pennsylvania  .    .    .   Experiment  Station State  College 

Rhode  Island  .    .    .   Experiment  Station Kingston 

South  Carolina    .    .   Experiment  Station Clemson  College 

South  Dakota     .    .   Experiment  Station Bookings 

Tennessee     ....   Experiment  Station Knoxville 

Texas Experiment  Station College  Station 

Utah Experiment  Station Logan 

Vermont Experiment  Station Burlington 

Virginia Experiment  Station Blacksburg 

Washington     .    .    .   Experiment  Station Pullman 

West  Virginia      .    .   Experiment  Station Morgantown 

Wisconsin     ....   Experiment  Station Madison 

Wyoming     ....   Experiment  Station Laramie 

United  States  .    .    .   Department  of  Agriculture  .    .  Washington,  D.C. 


1 


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m-7.'29 


yy  4b4oo 


4979 J! 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


